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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 




PEACTICAL SAFETY 
METHODS AND DEVICES 



MANUFACTURING AND 
ENGINEP]RING 



BY 

GEORGE ALVIN COWEE, E.M., S.B. 

MANAGER, BUREAU OF SAFETY, UTICA MUTUAL COMPENSATION 
INSURANCE CORPORATION 



128 Illustrations 




NEW YORK 
D. VAX XOSTRAXD COMPAXY 

25 Park Place 
1916 



COPYRIGHT, 191 6, BY 
D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 



t 3:&^ 



JUL-1 1916 

THE-PLI MP TON-PRESS 
NORWOOD-MASS'U-S-A 



ie)-i.Ai:n7i3 



PREFACE 

Industrial accidents cost this country 35,000 human hvcs and 
more than $500,000,000 annuall}^ In addition, dismemberments and 
other serious injuries total about 350,000 yearly, while the annual 
number of minor accidents, causing loss of time, exceeds 2,000,000. 
This statement does not include a very large number of cases of 
occupational diseases in which workers are either wholly or partially 
incapacitated, or which result in premature death. The annual 
loss in killed and wounded continues at a steady rate, and is now 
greater than the combined losses of the Union and Confederate 
armies during the Civil war. 

The prevention of industrial accidents is a subject that is now 
receiving considerable attention in all sections of the country. Al- 
though safety methods have been systematically studied for a num- 
ber of years in Germany, the fallacy has prevailed here that all work 
accidents were necessarily incident to industry, and that casualties 
were inevitable. A comparatively few employers and safety engi- 
neers, and the accident indemnity companies, have clearly demon- 
strated that this assumption is incorrect; furthermore, that it is 
possible, practicable, profitable, and eminently humane to prevent 
a very large proportion of industrial accidents. 

This book is intended to provide for employers, superintendents, 
foremen, underwriters, safety inspectors and engineers generally, a 
convenient summary of standard safety methods and devices as 
developed and perfected by those who have specialized in this subject. 
Tried and proven methods and devices are described and exemplified. 
The book is a result of careful observations made in hundreds of 
mills and manufacturing estabhshments, in building and construction 
work, railroad operation, handling explosives, and mining. It re- 
flects the experience, methods and ideas of practical men, — manufac- 
turers, operators, contractors, and engineers who are prominent in 
varied fields of industrial activity. No attempt has been made to 
cover the subject in all its branches. An exhaustive treatment, 
within the limits of a book of this kind, is altogether imposyible. 



iv PREFACE 

It is believed, however, that general principles are so suggested as 
to be useful in special and exceptional applications not specifically 
described in the following pages. 

We should recognize that safety methods and devices are in a 
continuous state of development. What to-day may be considered 
good practice or an adequate safeguard, may to-morrow be super- 
seded by a radical improvement. Standardization of safety methods 
and devices is in its infancy. Each succeeding year will witness 
important changes. The underlying principles, however, are now 
fairly well defined. 

Acknowledgment is due to many individuals and organizations 
whose co-operation has been generously provided. Free reference 
has been made to the bulletins of the United States Bureau of 
Mines. The chapter on Explosives is adapted from the ^'Manual 
of Explosives " of Professor Courtenay DeKalb, pubHshed by the 
Ontario ( Canada ) Bureau of Mines. The safety bulletins and rule 
books of the United States Steel Corporation have afforded much 
valuable material. The subject matter of the chapter on Grinding 
Machinery has been derived largely from the experience of the Norton 
Company. The bulletins of the National Founders' Association have 
aided in preparing the chapter on Iron and Steel. The Utica Mu- 
tual Compensation Insurance Corporation has contributed a number 
of photographs, and has accorded permission to reprint the safety 
rules contained in one of its bulletins. 

GEORGE ALVIN COWEE 
Utica, N.Y., April 1, 1916. 



CONTENTS 

chapter page 

1. Introductory 1 

II. Organization of Safety Committees 4 

III. General Observations 23 

IV. Buildings and Fire Hazard 38 

V. Exit Fire Drills 54 

VI. Organization of Fire Brigades 57 

VII. Boilers 60 

VIII. Engines 94 

IX. Elevators 107 

X. Electricity 135 

XL Transmission 150 

XII. Machine Tools 167 

XIII. Grinding Machinery 179 

XIV. Woodworking Machinery 189 

XV. Common Machines 200 

XVI. Iron and Steel 211 

XVII. Handling and Storing Material 236 

XVIII. Construction Work 259 

XIX. Steam and Electric Railroads 271 

XX. Mining and Quarrying 297 

XXI. Explosives - 326 

XXII. Miscellaneous 357 

XXIII. Rules for Foremen and General Rules 368 

XXIV. Sanitation, Illumination, Heating and Ventilation . . . 374 
XXV. Welfare Work 384 

XXVI. Occupational Diseases 398 

XXVII. First Aid to the Injured 403 

Index 431 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

1. Safety bulletin board 5 

2. Safety suggestion box near factory entrance (> 

3. Accident prevention score-board 12 

4. Vertical and horizontal metal belt guards applied to a vertical drill 24 

5. Inclined, vertical and horizontal belt guards applied to a saw grinder 25 

6. Inclined belt guards applied to a wood planer and circular rip saw 27 

7. Danger and warning signs 28 

8. Guard of wire mesh and folded sheet metal for inclined belt and 

balance wheel of punch press 29 

9. Safe and sanitary clothing 31 

10. Properly guarded stairway opening 41 

11. Properly marked exit to fireproof stairway tower 44 

12. Wireglass watergauge guard 65 

13. Metal case for hand-wheel of boiler valve 88 

14. Properly guarded fly-wheel 95 

15. Bevelled beams and plates 110 

16. Platform under sheaves and speed governor Ill 

17. 18, 19. Types of accidents prevented by interlocking devices. . . 112 

20. Properly equipped passenger elevator 117 

21. Properly equipped freight elevator car 119 

22. Automatic lock for freight elevator 123 

23. Properly guarded motor 141 

• 24. Properly protected switchboard 143 

25. Enclosed locked switch 144 

26. Sheet metal casing for shafting 151 

27. "Bull-Dog" shaft coupling 152 

28. Sectional view of Fig. 27 153 

29. Safety set screw with socket wrench 153 

30. Safety, multiple disc, solid friction clutch 154 

31. Assembled view of Fig. 30 154 

32. Sheet metal guards applied to vertical belts of speeders 157 

33. Woven wire guards applied to vertical belts of spinning frames. . . 158 

34. Overhead, horizontal, transmission belt guard suspended from beams 

above 159 

35. Large, horizontal, transmission belt guarded by a standard double- 

railed railing KU) 

36. Safety belt idler and shifter 165 

37. Safety cone belt shifter 168 



viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

38. Chip guard for lathe 169 

39. Safety lathe dogs 170 

40. Properly safeguarded planer 171 

41. Properly safeguarded drill press 172 

42. Adjustable guard for milling machine 173 

43. Automatic punch press guard 174 

44. Punch press with obstruction guards for blanking operation .... 175 

45. Duplex punch press guard 176 

46. Metal shear with steel tinseled guard at operating point 178 

47. Correct and incorrect methods of mounting emery wheels 180 

48. Safety stops to prevent use of oversize wheels 182 

49. Most approved form of exhaust hood for emery wheels 185 

50. Adequate protection for emery wheels 186 

51. Strong steel band for emery wheel 187 

52. Automatic circular saw guard 190 

53. Suspended automatic saw guard 191 

54. Push stick for narrow work on circular saw and automatic guard for 

saw 192 

55. Properly guarded swing cut-off saw 193 

56. Properly guarded band saw 194 

57. Automatic guard for jointer 195 

58. Automatic jointer guard in operation 196 

59. 60. Automatic guards for jointer 197 

61. Modern safety cutting head of jointer 197 

62. Old style, unsafe, square cutting head of jointer 198 

63. Push block for short work on jointer 198 

64. Guards for cutting heads of shaper 199 

65. Boring auger guard 199 

66. Wire mesh guard on frame at open end of cylinder printing press. . 201 

67. Automatic hand guard for job printing press 202 

68. Guard for hand-power paper cutter 203 

69. Paper corner cutter guard 204 

70. Automatic safety head for corner staying machines 205 

71. Guards for roll feed machinery 206 

72. Exposed gears at end of spinning frame ". . . . 206 

73. Guarded gears at end of spinning frame 207 

74. Beater lock appHed to finisher 208 

75. Guards for belts and shafting of stitching machines 209 

76. Hinged guard for hydro-extractor 210 

77. Wrong and right way to pour molten metal 221 

78. ''Congress" shoes and canvas leggings for foundrymen 222 

79. Congested and dangerous foundry floor 225 

80. Safe and well kept foundry floor 227 

81. Sheet metal guards for tumbling barrels 229 

82. Fixed-tongue switch for monorail track 244 

83. Safety crane hook with automatic lock in handle 251 

84. Automatic safety clamps 252 

85. Automatic hoisting shackle 252 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

86. Dangerous j^tracticc of standing under susj^ended load 2')'.i 

87. Dangerous ])rac'tice of riding on suspended load 254 

88. Unsafe storage of lumber 250 

89. "Patent" safety seafTolding 262 

90. Knuckle guard for handles of wheelbarrow 266 

9L Dangerous practice of attempting to mount foot-board of ap{)roach- 

ing engine 272 

92. Result of practice in Fig. 91 273 

93. Unnecessary to go between cars to coui:)le and uncouple them. . . . 274 

94. Viaduct for employees' safety 281 

95. Folding car blocker 282 

96. Steel foot-block for protecting guard rails and frogs 283 

97. Guard gate for track crossing in factory yard 285 

98. Unsafe practice of riding on brake rigging 286 

99. Many men killed crawling under cars 287 

100. Dangerous practice of sitting on hand wheel 288 

101. Climbing between cars a short cut to death 289 

102. Guard for overhead trolley wires in mines 301 

103. Improved steel cage for hoisting men in shaft 321 

104. Portable steel refuge house 339 

105. Safety goggles with side protectors 358 

106. Goggles broken by large chip of steel 358 

107. Emerj' dust from grinding wheel covering electric lamp bulb. . . . 359 

108. Helmet in use while arc Avelding 360 

109. Hood used for sand blasting 361 

110. Safe and unsafe hand tools 362 

111. Safety handle for shoe die 362 

112. Safety hammer with corrugated head 363 

113. Safety wrench 363 

114. Safet}' shoes and hooks for ladders 364 

115. Xickel i)lating tanks for acid fumes and steam 382 

116. Physical record form for medical examination of employees 386 

117. Rever.se of physical record form 387 

118. Notification form to superintendent in case of hernia or rupture. . . 388 

119. Major surgical record form 389 

120. Medical and minor surgical record form 390 

121. Operating room at company hosjntal 391 

122. Lunch room for emplo^'ces 392 

123. Reading room and library at the Palmerton Xeigh])orhood House. . 393 

124. Workman's protective uniform for ammonia tanks 401 

125. First aid kit 406 

126. Shaefer method of artificial respiration — inspiration 424 

127. Expiration 425 



PEACTICAL SAFETY METHODS 
AND DEVICES 

CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTORY 

The progress of the ''Safety First" movement that is 
now sweeping over the United States has been remarkably 
rapid. The ''Safety First" slogan has caught the atten- 
tion and interest of the entire country. It is seen and 
heard on all sides; its appeal is world wdde. Humanity 
demands safety! 

Workmen's compensation law^s have been enacted in 
twenty-nine states within the past few years, and the 
enactment of similar laws in all other states is certain to 
follow very shortly. These laws compel employers to 
insure tneir employees against accidental injuries sustained 
during hours of employment. This places a serious eco- 
nomic problem before the people of this country. The 
prevention of accidents has become of vast importance to 
employers and employees, and to the public at large, from 
both the financial and humane points of view. 

Safety engineering has become a well established pro- 
fession. It is, however, a comparatively new field of en- 
deavor. Nevertheless, its importance is indicated by the 
millions of dollars that are annually being spent by em- 
ployers of labor in safeguarding their machinery and work- 
places, and in educating their employees; also, by the 
yearly w^aste of at least $500,000,000 w^hich is now^ incurred 
by preventable accidents. To this monetary factor should 
be added an untold amount of human suffering and sor- 
row, the maimed and incapacitated beings which each 



2 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

year's accidents bring forth, and, finally, the death roll of 
industry. 

It is a generally conceded fact that safety is essential 
to efficiency. No company that has many work accidents 
is now considered highly efficient. Accidents cause dis- 
organization and delays. They have a destructive effect 
on the morale of any working force. Danger breeds con- 
tempt; whereas, safety promotes co-operation and effi- 
ciency. Employers are spending a great amount of time 
and money in teaching safety and efficiency to their em- 
ployees with the full realization that the one is practically 
useless without the other, that they are interdependent, 
and that both are necessary for economy. Thus safety 
and efficiency go hand in hand. 

Education is the keynote to universal safety. The time 
is not far distant when courses in safety engineering will 
be embodied in the curriculum of every technical school 
and college. Safety is already being taught in some of 
our public schools. If we are to successfully prevent acci- 
dents, we must begin by teaching and training our school 
children and students in safety work. The children and 
students of to-day are the workers and employers of to- 
morrow. The public school is the logical starting point 
for this educational campaign, and the work should be 
extended to, and amplified in, our technical schools and 
colleges. 

Approximately thirty percent of industrial accidents are 
preventable by means of safeguards, if properly used and 
maintained in good condition. On the other hand, at 
least sixty percent of these accidents can be eliminated by 
the proper education of employees in matters pertaining to 
safety; in other words, teaching employees to be cautious 
and thoughtful at all times, instructing them to think of 
their own safety and that of their fellow-workmen, and 
training them to refrain from taking unnecessary risks. 
At least ninety percent of all work accidents are actually 
preventable. Therefore, if the above methods are used to 



INTRODUCTORY 3 

check this gigantic waste, employers of labor may expect 
to ultimately save the entire cost of insurance on these 
preventable accidents. Employees may also expect to 
save at least seventy-five percent of the losses in wages 
now incurred by these casualties. 

Accident prevention is unquestionably a paying in- 
vestment. The most striking proof of this statement is 
revealed in the experience of the United States Steel Cor- 
poration. Approximately $5,000,000 was expended during 
the last eight years ])y the subsidiary companies of the 
Corporation for the installation of safety devices and the 
adoption of accident prevention measures. In three years 
the safety work resulted in the prevention of 6,308 acci- 
dents which would have otherwise occurred if the accident 
ratio of preceding years had been maintained. In other 
w^ords, the accident rate has been reduced approximately 
forty percent (40%) during the past five years. Likewise, 
the saving in casualty expense over expenditures for safety, 
during the past three years, has been over thirty-five per- 
cent (35 9c)- ^^^len we consider, in connection with this 
exhibit, that the compensation to injured workmen during 
this period was materially increased, the emphatic con- 
clusion is that safety pays. 



CHAPTER II 

ORGANIZATION OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 

As THE education of employees is the most important 
factor in the elimination of preventable accidents, this 
should receive first consideration. Education can be most 
effectively brought about through the organization of 
safety committees by each company. Manufacturing cor- 
porations, railroad companies, and mining companies from 
all sections of the country have testified that efficient 
safety organizations have, on an average, reduced the num- 
ber of their accidents by at least fifty percent. Some com- 
panies have even reduced the number of their accidents 
by as much as seventy percent. A very large number 
of representative companies in this country now main- 
tain their own safety committees. Such an organization 
is not only of great service in the prevention of accidents, 
but it increases the efficiency of the workers, and pro- 
motes universal good will. 

In order to make the safety organization a success, it 
is first necessary to convince employees of the sincerity 
of the safety work; also, that the prevention of accidents 
is for the benefit of all employees as well as for the com- 
pany. Employees should be made to clearly understand 
that sustaining serious accidents, which may dismember 
them, will greatly reduce their future earning power. They 
should also be made to realize that it costs the company a 
considerable sum of money to educate them to efficiently 
perform the work for which they are engaged. Their 
attention should be called to the untold misery and suf- 
fering which would befall their families, in case they are 
seriously injured or killed. It is absolutely essential to 



ORGANIZATION OF SAFETY COIMMITTEES 



secure the hearty co-operation of employees in the safety 
work. 

Many of the large companies interest their employees 
through motion pictures, and illustrated talks and lectures. 
Motion pictures, how- 
ever, can not always 
be readily obtained for 
use in educating em- 
plo3xes of smaller com- 
panies. Nevertheless, 
illustrated talks and 
lectures on accident 
prevention are feasible, 
and extremely useful. 
Also, an average size 
company can print, or 
have printed, monthly 
bulletins or pamphlets 
containing several pho- 
tographs or drawings of 
dangerous machinery, 
safeguards, unsafe places 
and dangerous practices, 
and methods of correct- 
ing them. The bulletin 
should also contain in- 
teresting safety litera- 
ture and statistics. 
These can be advanta- 
geously intermingled 
with humorous stories, 

jokes, and comic drawings, which tend to attract and hold the 
interest of the employees. This variety gives greater assur- 
ance that the whole bulletin will be read by each em- 
ployee. All safety suggestions which are adopted, together 
with the name of employee making the recommendation, 
should also be printed in the bulletin. Many companies 




Fig. 1 

Safety bulletin board. 

Courtesy Middletown Car Company. 



6 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



% 



have their own books of safety rules which are distributed 
to all workers. Rule books, warning signs, some of the 
safety literature, and notices should be printed in as 
many languages as are spoken by employees. 

Bulletin boards are also valuable. (Fig. 1.) These 
should be located at the entrances to the factory, or in 

each department. 
Every week, safety lit- 
erature, photographs, 
and drawings, as above 
described, should be 
posted upon these bul- 
letin boards; also, any 
new rules or regula- 
tions which the com- 
pany may adopt. 

'^Safety First" slo- 
gans may be printed 
upon the back of pay 
envelopes — a new 
slogan for each week. 
Many of the ideas con- 
veyed by these maxims 
vfill permanently fix 
themselves in the 
minds of employees. 

Suggestion boxes, 
in which employees 
may slip memoranda 
containing their ideas in writing regarding the improve- 
ment of conditions and efficiency, should be maintained 
at entrances to the factory. (Fig. 2.) Workmen should 
be urgently requested to make recommendations. From 
such a source, many valuable suggestions are received. 
Suitable forms should be employed to systematize the work. 
The Eastman Kodak Company uses the following forms in 
this connection, which are self-explanatory: 




Fig. 2 

Safety suggestion box near factory entrance. 

Courtesy Com?nonweaUh Steel Company. 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 



EASTMAN KODAK (T)MPAXY 

SuGOESTiox Blank 

This Oonipany welcomes suggestions from employees which will t(Mi(l to 
make working conditions safer, reduce the cost of i)roduction, improve the aj)- 
Iiearance of the goods, improve the methods of manufacture, and increase the 
efficiency and general condition of the plant. 

\_Take care to clearly define, describe and explain all suggestions. 
When suggestion is applicable to a machine, give the macldne number 
and exact location.'^ 
Remember that all suggestions adopted are of value, and that they will be 
treated according to their merit. 



General Superintendent Date 



I respectfully submit the following suggestion: 



Signature of Employee 
Name Number 

Dept . 



EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY 

Suggestion Acknowledgement 
Mr. Date 



We desire to thank you for your suggestion regarding 



This has been referred to the Suggestion Committee for action, and will be 

known as No. . 

You will be advised of final action at a later date. 

Manager. 



8 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY 

Suggestion Report 

Mr. Date 

Your suggestion No. relative to 



has been finally approved, and an award of $. has been placed to 

your credit, which you can secure by calling at the Cashier's office. We wish 
to thank you for this suggestion. If it is not in operation within a reasonable 
time, you are requested to notify some member of the Suggestion Committee. 



Manager. 



EASTMAN KODAK COMPANY 

Suggestion Acknowledgement 
Mr. Date 



Regarding your Suggestion No. relative to 



It has not been approved for the following reasons: 



Manager. 



Some suitable distinction or award is necessary to 
create a spirit of interest and enthusiasm among em- 
ployees, and to stimulate suggestions. Many companies 
offer cash prizes to employees making the most valuable 
suggestions. These awards are made each month. Some 
companies offer at least one dollar for every unsafe place 
or dangerous practice which is brought to the attention of 
their safety departments. Other companies offer novel- 
ties, such as watch fobs, cigar cutters, pipes, stick pins. 



ORGANIZATION OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 9 

books and other useful articles. Some companies offer a 
gold '^Safety First" button, which may be worn in the 
lapel of the coat. As soon as an employee learns all of 
the rules adopted by the company, having passed an oral 
examination by his foreman, he is awarded one of these 
buttons. His name is then added to the list of ''Safety 
First" men in the employ of the company. 

Workmen's safety committees are especially important. 
These should consist of several workmen in each depart- 
ment. Monthly meetings should be held for the discussion 
of accident prevention. The personnel of these committees 
should be changed every three months. Where workmen 
gather in a meeting of their own, to the exclusion of their 
superiors, they feel much more at ease. They then frankly 
express their own ideas, whereas, if the meeting were in 
charge of the superintendent or a foreman, they would be 
loath to advance their opinions upon any subject. The 
workmen should be allowed to appoint their own safety 
inspector, who should serve for a period of one month. 
Each week, this inspector should be given some printed 
form of a report to fill out and hand in to the safety de- 
partment. He should report every unsafe place or un- 
guarded machine, and also caution workmen against any 
unsafe practices he may observe. Some companies main- 
tain a box of red tags in each room. As soon as any dan- 
gerous unguarded part of a machine or an unsafe place is 
discovered, a red tag is attached thereto. Every employee 
in the factory should have the privilege of attaching these 
tags. They should not be removed until the unsafe con- 
dition has been eliminated. 

Foremen can do much toward securing the interest and 
support of employees. They can do more than anyone 
else in the company to make the safety organization a 
success. If a workman believes that his foreman is sin- 
cere in his desire to prevent accidents, to promulgate the 
proper use of safeguards and safety appliances, and to 
ehminate unsafe practices, he will usually attempt to carry 



10 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 

out his foreman's wishes. It is necessary to secure the co- 
operation of ever}^ foreman. Those who are not willing 
to carry on the work of accident prevention in an en- 
thusiastic manner should not be retained in the employ 
of any company. No intelligent foreman will dispute the 
desirability of preventing accidents. 

Each company should clearly impress upon the mind of 
every workman that those who take an active interest in 
the prevention of accidents, make recommendations for 
eliminating unsafe conditions and dangerous practices, and 
that those who abstain from liquor, shall be considered, in 
preference to others, for promotion and advancement. 
With a view toward encouraging workmen to report dan- 
gerous practices, the company should assure all employees 
that nobody, who is reported for the first time, will be 
disciplined. A workman who continually indulges in dan- 
gerous practices is a menace to the safety and welfare of 
his fellow-workmen. Such men should be discharged. 

One of the most important methods of interesting 
workmen is through the medium of an accident prevention 
score-board. The Dodge Manufacturing Company has 
used a score-board of this kind with great success. The 
method of operation, and experience in the use of their 
score-board, is given in the following article by W. L. 
Chandler, Supervisor of Insurance of the Dodge Manu- 
facturing Company: 

''The widespread publicity and enthusiasm that have 
been attached to the Dodge Accident Prevention Score- 
Board well justifies an official statement of its worth and 
success in the minimization of accidents in the plants of 
the Dodge Manufacturing Company. Since its introduc- 
tion in 1912, thousands of letters have been addressed to 
the company asking for more definite particulars regarding 
its operation than could be gathered from the various 
channels through which its use has been made public. 

''In the first place, the score-board was designed and 
built as sort of a 'family affair' among the Dodge workers; 



OHCJAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMIMITTEES 11 

its operation was simple; but its scope among our work-a- 
day lives was almost as far reaching as the daily task 
itself. Men and employer regard it alike; with the same 
friendl}^ spirit of competition that would surround a winter 
tournament of checkers. Little thought was given to the 
great welfare work it was destined to do; and practically 
no one regarded it from the humane standpoint; that is, 
not at first. 

^^But just as the spirit of enthusiasm carries a National 
or American League ball team on its world pennant race; 
just as the ambitious salesman throw^s every effort into a 
sales competition; just so that same spirit has invaded the 
lives of our workers until, from a friendly report board, it 
has become a hard fought field of contest between, first, 
whole departments, and second, betw^een the individuals of 
different departments. To see 1,000 scored for a division 
is a personal achievement to every man in that division; 
and woe betide the individual member of these work- 
platoons who, through carelessness or thoughtlessness is 
the cause of penalty to his associates. To-day the Dodge 
score-board is as much a pride to the establishment as a 
record-breaking pulley or transmission equipment; one 
representing achievement in human conservation and effi- 
ciency, just as the other marks a mile-stone in mechanical 
progress. 

''The Dodge Accident Prevention Score-Board stands 
just inside the main gate of the factory. It is 24 feet 
long, and on it are shown the departments, foremen, per- 
centages for month and year, and rank of the various 
competing divisions. A reproduction of this board is here 
shown. (Fig. 3.) 

''The starting point is 1,000 both for year and for month. 
Each division is penalized according to its accidents — 
minor accidents of less than one day's absence not as yet 
being considered. Each day's absence bears a percentage 
charge in proportion to the total number of Snen-days' 
per month per di^'ision. 



12 



PRACTICAL SAFETY jMETHODS AND DEVICES 



''There are 26 divisions in the Dodge competition of 
various degrees of natural hazard and of wide variation in 
numbers of men. The degree of hazard is disregarded in 
our business which covers the same general subject through- 
out the plant; the differentiation being considered as equal- 
ized in the choice or selection of men with reference to 



ACCIDENT PREVENTION SCORE-BOARD 

DODGE MANUFACTURING COMPANV. 



Number 
Dept, 



FoREHENS Monthly 
C ompetition 

All Departments 
Having a Scon of 1000 
ortbe Highest Three 
Scores, will Receive 
Special Prizes as per 
Monthly Prize List. 

PrizeIi st Fop 

HONTH OfSHE^OoOD 

* zs.oo 



Name 
Department 



Name 
Foreman 



Deduction Percentage | Rank For 
forAbsence Month lYfartoDatc Month lifeartoDitj 



E.(juf,lly c/jvidcd 



AmoN6 thm 



FQrenifi 



A Per^ict Scof e- 




Annual Competition 
General 

All Departments Scoring 
1000 for ttieYparorttie 
One fiol(jin$ Rank one 
inYearly Percentage will 
Receive Two Days Pay 
. Extra 
Second Hi^lid Kill Kfceive 
One Days Pay Extra. 

Head Foreman 

WILL PARTICIPATE IN 

FIRST PRIZE IF WON 

BY A DIVISION IN HIS 

DEPARTMENT 



Fig. 3 

Accident prevention score-board. 

Courtesy Dodge Manufacturing Company. 

their ability and fitness for their respective class of work. 
As to the variation in the sizes and groups of workers, we 
meet this by estabhshing a differential charge per man per 
day for time off, which is computed by reducing each 
division to men-days for each month, and using a multi- 
pher of 10 to raise the figures to a more workable and 
understandable basis. 

''A division working 50 men for 25 days per month 
amounts to 1,250 men-days; divide 1,000 by 1,250 and 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 13 

multiply the result by 10 equals 8 points for each man off 
one day on account of accident in that division. Wide 
variations noticed in a year's competition in the different 
divisions should be the basis of an adjustment of this 
penalty charge, which adjustment should not have to be 
made during a month. 

^'In this manner, large and small divisions are equal as 
to their penalties. In the fourth column of the score- 
board will be noticed the figures which represent the deduc- 
tions for absence in that division. 

''We disregard small accidents that do not entail ap- 
preciable loss of time, and we do not penalize for the 
remainder of the day on which the accident occurs. It is 
possible by this provision to insure the prompt report of 
all accidents, however small, so that we may be sure of 
proper attendance, and avoid, as far as possible, such 
suffering as may be otherwise charged to secrecy on the 
part of either men or division superintendents. 

"At the end of 12 months, the employees of the divi- 
sions scoring 1,000 receive two days' extra pay, or such 
part of that amount as their time and employment bear 
to the full year. If none scores 1,000, then the highest 
ranking department receives two days' extra pay, and the 
second highest, one day extra pay. General foremen of 
any division under them earning these premiums also par- 
ticipate on the same basis, but may earn but one prize if 
other divisions under them score perfect. 

''The original plan was to distribute $25 in cash each 
month to all foremen of divisions earning perfect scores, 
but due to the relative importance, and the efforts of the 
foremen with a widely varying number of men to deal 
with, w^e were obliged, in fairness, to change this arrange- 
ment so that one-half of each prize is paid on a flat basis, 
and one-half distributed according to the number of men 
overseen. Thus a foreman in charge of 50 men will get 
a proportionately larger premium than one in charge of 
10 men. It may be noticed that the cash prize is rather 



14 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

small, and to some might be even considered trivial; but 
to such there has not come the meaning of the spirit back 
of the Dodge Accident Prevention Board as it prevails in 
our factory. It is the difference between success and loss 
that counts, and men who work at the lathe, the forge, or 
the cupola,, have the same aspirations to participate in 
the w^inning spirit that inspires any team or organization, 
however or whenever formed. Several efforts have been 
made by psychologists, visiting our plant, to analyze the 
mental attitude which these men must carry, and it has 
been the unanimous opinion that departmental loyalty is 
the first stone, the great foundation, upon which stand 
the success and co-operation of this idea. . It is the aim of 
each division to head the list, and men must feel that they 
have a chance of winning throughout the year. This in- 
terest is fostered by making up the yearly basis out of the 
monthly average. The great thought is then concentrated 
on the yearly contest, and the discouragement of any 
unfavorable monthly showing is avoided because any other 
division may have a sufficient penalty in some months 
throughout the year to equalize these unfavorable periodi- 
cal conditions. 

^^We have found that this system is a matter of per- 
sonal interest to both foremen and employees, and so 
intense has the competition become, at times, that an 
unforeseen condition arises which must be met by extreme 
diplomacy, and that is the ill-feeling that may be occa- 
sioned against a worker who has been responsible for causes 
which might have been controlled. Careful investigation 
and study have shown that the personal interest manifests 
itself, and the feeling that the loss must be minimized is 
responsible, to a great extent, toward urging men to get 
back to work as quickly as possible. The foremen of the 
various divisions of the factory are members of a safety 
committee which meets at regular intervals under the direc- 
tion of the General Superintendent. A board of governors 
of five looks after the details of inspections, reports, inves- 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 15 

tigates complaints, and approves the monthly penalty 
charges. This has served as an admirable promotion 
toward the further education of foremen in matters pertain- 
ing to accident prevention, as well as sanitation, cleanli- 
ness, and fire prevention, etc. 

''For the year closing September, 1913, 10 divisions 
out of 26 showed perfect scores. The division ranking 16, 
the lowest, has a penalty of but 51 points. Included in 
the perfect scores is the South Foundry, the division in 
which our heaviest work is produced, making single cast- 
ings up to 50 tons in weight and generally classed as a 
hazardous occupation. An analysis of the year ending 
September, 1913, shows 161 accidents — 17 applying on 
foot, 77 on eye, 45 on hands or fingers, 45 on scalps or 
face, 6 on burns or scalds, 5 miscellaneous. The total 
expense of first aid was $308.50; hospital service, $31.50; 
claims, $50; a total of $390. Time lost was figured at 
218 hours, thus the average cost per accident was $2.42. 

'^For the 12 months ending September, 1914, 11 depart- 
ments of the 26 showed an improvement over their record 
for year ending 1913. Nine departments of the 26 showed 
a decline. Six departments maintained their averages of 
the previous year, and five of these six have now presented 
perfect scores on 1,000 for two years. With one exception, 
all hazardous departments show a gain." 

OUTLINE OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 

. A Central Safety Committee should consist of the fol- 
lowing: General Superintendent (Chairman), a Safety 
Inspector (Secretary), and three or more department 
superintendents, foremen or workmen. This committee 
should hold monthly meetings to discuss safety conditions 
and efficiency in the plant, and consider all suggestions and 
recommendations received during the month. Records 
should be kept, in a book provided for the purpose, of the 
minutes of all meetings, and of all suggestions and recom- 
mendations received. 



16 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

The duties of the Central Safety Committee should be: 

1. To have charge and supervision over all safety work. 

2. To establish standards for safeguards. 

3. To formulate rules and regulations. 

4. To carry on an educational campaign among employees. 

5. To maintain suggestion boxes, into which employees are urged to slip 
recommendations or ideas in writing, which will improve the safety conditions 
and efficiency in and about the plant. 

6. To maintain bulletin boards upon which safety literature, illustrations, 
instructions and rules should be posted. 

7. To provide and maintain ample "First Aid" equipment. 

The duties of the Safety Inspector should be: 

1. To inspect for need of safeguards. 

2. To see that safeguards are maintained in good condition. 

3. To see that safety devices are used. 

4. To inspect for congested and unsafe conditions. 

5. To inspect for unsafe practices. 

6. To inspect for unsanitary conditions. 

7. To inspect all fire apparatus. 

8. To act as secretary, keep all records, and receive all recommendations 
and suggestions. 

9. To have charge of the details of all safety work. 

10. To investigate all accidents. 

11. To make weekly inspections and reports of the above conditions in the 
plant on forms provided for the purpose. 

Workmen's Committees, consisting of three or more 
workmen, appointed and changed periodically, holding 
weekly meetings, should have the following duties: 

1. To make inspections and reports of the safety conditions in and about 
the plant in their several departments, using forms provided for the purpose. 

2. To investigate all accidents; and consider, in each case, methods of 
preventing a repetition. 

3. To caution and warn fellow- workmen against unsafe practices. 

4. To send all suggestions and recommendations to the safety department. 

The duties of Foremen should be: 

1. To enforce all rules and regulations. 

2. To investigate and report all accidents. 

3. To instruct the men, especially the new men, how to perform their work 
in a safe and efficient manner. 

4. To caution the men against the dangers incident to their work, and the 
hazards which surround them. 

5. To eliminate all unsafe practices. 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 17 

6. To make weekly inspections in their (U^partments, and submit reports 
on forms provided for that purpose. 

7. To consider themselves held personally responsil)le for all preventable 
accidents in their departments. 

8. To hold monthly meetings for the discussion of all matters j)ertaining to 
safety, sanitation, welfare, and efficiency. 

The following outline of the safety organization of the 
United States Steel Corporation will prove of value: 

OUTLINE OF SAFETY ORGAXIZATIOX 
I. United States Steel Corporation. — Committee of Safety. 

Casualty managers of all subsidiary companies calle<l togc^ther May, 1906, to 
discuss accident prevention. 

Subsidiary companies actively took up safety work b\' detailing special men 
for the work. 

Committee of Safety organized in March, 1908. 

An officer of the Steel Corporation acts as chairman and seven other members 
represent the larger subsidiary companies. 

Meets quarterly, either in Xew York or at one of the plants or mines. 

Conducts inspections by ha\dng an inspector from one company inspect another 
company's operations. 

Also makes inspections personally. 

Studies all serious accidents and makes recommendations against further 
occurrences, not alone to the company in whose works the accident happened, 
but to all companies. 

Passes upon safety devices and makes recommendations as to their use. 

SUBSIDIARY COMPAXY 
Safety Committees 
n. Central Safety Committees. 

Organized shortly after the Steel Corporation Committee. 

Made up of important officials from each of the plants, mines or railroad 
divisions. 

Meet monthly. 

Duties similar to the Steel Corporation Safety Committee, but each with 
reference to its particular company only. 

Conduct inter-mill inspections. 

III. Plant Safety Committees. 

Organized shortly after Steel Corporation Committee. 

Made up of important officials of the plant. 

Meet monthly or weekly, and in some cases daily. 

Make regular inspections of the plant. 

Duties similar to those of the Central Safety Committee, but each with refer- 
ence to its particular plant only. 



18 PRACTICAL SAFETY ^vIETHODS AND DEVICES 

IV. Department and Special Committees. 

Organized shortly after Steel Corporation Safety Committee. 

Made up of foremen, master mechanics and skilled workmen. 

Meet weekly or monthly as the case may be. 

Make periodical inspections of the plant. 

Make special investigations of particular problems. 

V. Workmen's Safety Committees. 

Organized shortly after Steel Corporation Safety Committee. 

Usually consist of three members from the rank and file of the mill. 

Members changed periodically so that each man in a plant shall serve upon 
the committee in due time. 

jVleet monthlj^, in some cases weekly. 

IVIake regular inspections of the plant or department. 

Investigate accidents that have happened, and recommend means of pre- 
venting similar accidents. 

4,678 Men Served on these Committees During 1912 
Organization of Sanitary Work in United States Steel Corporation. 
The work in sanitation has been organized in a manner almost identical with 
the safety organization, except that the Sanitation Committee is chosen from 
among the Presidents of the subsidiary companies, with an officer of the United 
States Steel Corporation as one of its members. This Committee administers 
the work through a sub-committee composed largely of technical representatives 
from each of the subsidiary companies designated by the Presidents of their 
respective companies. In this work, trained sanitary engineers and experts from 
outside the United States Steel Corporation organization are employed as occa- 
sion arises, and in some cases have been attached permanently to the organization 
of certain of the subsidiary companies. 

The New York Central Lines, in addition to the Gen- 
eral Safety Committees, one for lines east and one for 
lines west, have Division Safety Committees and Shop 
Safety Committees as follows: 

Division and Shop Safety Committees 

The Division Safety Committee on each Division consists of the Superin- 
tendent as Chairman, Division officials, and the following employees: 

Yardmaster Fireman Bridgeman 

Road Conductor Brakeman Carman 

Yard Conductor Agent Signalman 

Engineman Trackman Shopman 

The Shop Safety Committee in principal shops consists of Shop Superin- 
tendent as Chairman, other officials, and a 

Machinist Car Repairer 

Boiler Maker Painter 

Blacksmith 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 19 

"The foregoing organization is intended to secure more vigilance and co- 
operation by all employees in preventing personal injuries of every character. 
It shall be the duty of the Division and Shop Committees to investigate personal 
injuries which may occur in their respective jurisdictions and apply, where pos- 
sible, within their authority, necessary remedies to prevent a recurrence; also 
investigate all dangerous conditions and improper practices which might con- 
triijute to accidents, antl apply corrective measures where iiossibl(\" 

(Signed) A. H, Smith, Vice President, 

New York Central Twines, 

The outline of the safety organization of the OHver 
Iron ^Mining Company is as follows: 

Central Safety Committee 

(U. S. Steel Corporation) 

I 
General Safety Committee 

(Oliver Iron Mining Co.) 



Gen. Supts. Gen. Min(> Inspector District Committees 



Mechan- I Open 
ical Pit 



Under- 
ground 



Safety 
Inspector 



The safety organization of the Cleveland Cliffs Iron Co. is 
as follows: 

Central Safety Committee 



I I I 

Committee of soft ore Committee of hard ore 

foremen j foremen 

First Aid 



Helmet I 

Teams Teams Safety Committee for each mine 

The First Aid Teams and Helmet Teams hold frequent drills which are carried 
out as if an accident or disaster had actually occurred. 

Some of the larger mining companies maintain schools 
for the free instruction of the miners in arithmetic, ele- 
mentary geometry, English, mining methods, mining rules, 
safety and first aid work. This educational work results 
directly in increased efficiency and safety. 

The latest developments in accident prevention methods, 
as carried out by the Illinois Steel Compan}-, are as follows: 



20 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



ORGANIZATION 

General Central Committee of Safety and Sanitation. — Executive charge of 
campaign — study accidents and devise means for prevention. Formulate rules 
for construction and operation. Devise guards for dangerous places. Devise 
plans and schemes for interesting and educating men in accident prevention. 

Plant Central Committee of Safety and Sanitation. — Executive charge of 
Plant campaign — report to General Central Committee results and new schemes. 

Special Sub-Committees of Safety and Sanitation. — On hghting — sanita- 
tion — construction — special hazards — hoisting equipment, etc. — reporting to 
General Central or Plant Central Committees. 

Departmental Safety Committees. — Executive charge of departmental cam- 
paign — report results and schemes to Plant Central Committee. 

Safety Inspector. — Secretary, Plant Central Committee. — General pro- 
moter of accident prevention campaign — keeps records of all meetings held 
on plant, inspections, accidents, personal injury settlements, and all records 
incident to the foregoing. 

EDUCATION 

Rule Books. — For foremen, covering construction and operating rules, 
printed in English only. 

For workmen, covering operating rules only, printed in English and foreign 
languages. 

Safety Buttons. — Foremen must pass examination on Safety Rules. For 
efficiency of 90% or better, a '' Safety First" button is awarded. Workmen 
also invited to take examination for button, and large numbers have done so. 

Bulletin Boards. — On each plant highway and in each department, one or 
more installed. Material used to keep men interested in accident prevention 
includes stories of accidents, near accidents, newspaper clippings of accidents, 
lists of departments successful in keeping in Prize Class for prior month, etc. 
Material changed weekly. 

Monthly Bulletin. — Magazine containing graphical chart of accident record 
of departments — pictures of how accidents happen, stories of accidents, 
photos of Safety devices invented by workmen, photos of Safety Committees, 
items of plant interest, etc. 

Signs at Gateways and Roadways. — Illuminated signs displaying Safety 
precepts printed in foreign as well as English language, and changed periodically. 

Plant Preacher. — A man versed in intricacies of foreign tongues, who calls 
upon Foremen to whom new men have been sent, and in conjunction with Fore- 
man, talks to men about their duties and accident prevention. Talks to men in 
groups on " Safety First." 

Gang Safety Man. — Each foreman appoints one or more of his men to act 
as Safety overseer. In addition to regular duties, this man is on the alert for 
dangerous conditions and practices, reporting same to his foreman. Man is 
given " Safety Man" badge. 

Division Safety Men in Departments. — Department is divided into divi- 
sions. Division head's work keeps him in the narrow confines of his division 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF SAFETY COMMITTEES 21 

practically all of the time. He is informed of every man under his jurisdiction, 
and is responsible for the safety of every man under him. He nuist assure him- 
self that working conditions are safe; that dangerous practices are eliminated, 
that every man in his division understands Safety and Sanitation R(>gulations 
and conforms to them; that repair work is not undertaken until levers or switches 
controlling power are locked, using his own lock in conjunction with workmen's 
locks; must see that conditions are safe before machinery is started again. Must 
not leave his division for any purpose without reporting to his substitute or 
Assistant Superintendent of department. Must watch every job and see that 
everything is done with the thought of " Safety First." May shut down the 
division if necessary for Safety. Must report immediately to superiors any dis- 
regard of first warning. All workmen must notify division man before doing work 
in a division. Names of division heads placed on Bulletin Hoards so that all will 
know them. Near accidents must be reported immediately to division head, 
who in turn reports to Assistant Superintendent. 

GENERAL iMEETING OF DEPARTMENT SAFETY 
MEN AND WORKMEN 

Held in a Safety Hall. All accidents causing loss of time are read and ana- 
lyzed by men as to whether trade risk, Company's negligence or workmen's 
negligence; the analysis also being sub-divided into appropriate branches under 
these headings. Discussion of inspections, reports of dangerous practices dis- 
covered, and of near accidents, etc. Meetings monthly. 

Meetings in Departments under supervision of Department Safety Committee. 

Announcement and list of points for discussion made by Chairman of De- 
partment Committee. 

PRIZES 

Articles advertising the " Safety First" idea. 

When a department is successful in meeting certain fixed requirements in 
accident prevention during any one month, each man in that department re- 
ceives a '' Safety First" token bearing the Company's monogram and the slogan 
" Safety First." 

SANITATION 

There is a great deal in the psychology of accident prevention — conditions 
under which men work are material; pleasant surroundings and proper con- 
ditions make for better and more careful workmen. 



OUTSIDE OF PLANTS 

Carrying the Movement into the Home. 

Through the Schools. — Engage motion picture theaters — street car 
company furnish transportation to same for all children — program of motion 
pictures on Safety and stereopticon slides. 

Through the Church. — Banquet to all Clergy — stereopticon slides, motion 
pictures and talks on Safety. Decide on certain day to be Safety Sunday, when 
sermons will be on Safety. 



22 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



THROUGH SOCIAL CENTERS, WORKMEN'S CLUBS, Y. M. C. A.'S 

Class in Domestic Science — model kitchen using simple utensils, such as 
are in homes of the poor. 

Class in languages, mathematics and mechanics. 

Library and reading rooms. 

Visiting nurse. 

Gymnasium work and sports. 

Playgrounds with instructor. 

Flower and Vegetable Gardens — provide and prepare ground, plot or assign 
ground, provide seeds, provide watchman, if necessary, and provide prizes. 

ARRANGE FOR A DAY TO BE SET ASIDE AS ''SAFETY DAY" 

Proclamation of Mayor Exercises in Schools 

Parade and provide badges and special caps and banners. End with picnic 
and safety exhibit. 



CHAPTER III 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 



Guarding Machinery. — The employer's first duty is 
to provide adequate and effective safeguards and safety 
devices for all dangerous machinery and workplaces. Ma- 
chinery should be made ''fool-proof" in so far as it is prac- 
ticable to do so. It is for the employer's interest, as well 
as for the interest of his employees, to maintain safe con- 
ditions in his factory. Otherwise, there remains a loss of 
efficiency among employees, and a loss of loyalty to duty 
and faithfulness to employer; for no employee can have 
confidence in an employer who keeps the way open for 
maimed limbs and lost lives. The safeguarding of dan- 
gerous machinery and workplaces is one of the best invest- 
ments that an employer can make. 

Guards should be designed to meet the requirements 
at hand. They should be substantially built, effectively 
protecting the workmen from injury. Poorly constructed, 
impractical, unsafe guards are far worse than none at 
all. If guards have been previously installed which are 
unsafe and in poor condition, they should be torn down 
and replaced by suitable new ones. Guards should be so 
constructed as not to hamper or interfere with the opera- 
tion of machines. 

Safeguards should only be removed in case of neces- 
sity, such as for repairing, altering, testing, oiling and 
cleaning. As soon as this work has been completed, they 
should be immediately replaced. When a guard is removed 
from a machine, a warning sign, forbidding anyone to 
operate the machine, should be hung in a conspicuous 
place. No one should be allowed to use the machine until 
the guard has been replaced. 



24 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



There are a great many varieties of safeguards. Belts 
and pulleys, friction clutches, and other similar dangerous 




Fig. 4 
Vertical and horizontal belt guards of folded sheet metal 
and wire mesh, and perforated metal, applied to a 
vertical drill. 

Courtesy Bausch & Lomh Optical Company. 

moving parts, are usually best guarded by enclosures of 
angle iron, filled in with wire mesh, sheet metal, expanded 



GENERAL OBSERA'ATIOXS 



25 



metal or perforated metal. Hinged lids or doors should 
be employed where it is necessary to obtain access to 




Fig. 5 

Inclined, vertical and horizontal belt guards of wire mesh 

and sheet metal applied to a saw grinder. 

Courtesy Baiisch & Lomb Optical Company. 

moving parts, in order to avoid the necessity of removing 
the entire guard. Wire mesh and expanded metal guards 



26 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

have the advantage that the moving parts of machines 
are always visible; whereas, sheet metal obscures the view. 
On the other hand, as in the case of cotton mills, wire 
mesh collects a great quantity of waste cotton, which is 
constantly floating in the air, thus increasing the danger 
of fire. Perforated sheet metal may also be advan- 
tageously used for many purposes. Each type of these 
guards should be selected to meet the needs of any 
given condition. Chicken wire should never be used, 
as it easily bulges when pressure is applied. As a rule, 
wooden frame guards should be avoided. They are us- 
ually built in a clumsy manner, and often prove in- 
secure. The open spaces in wire mesh, or perforated 
sheet metal, should be small enough to prevent a 
hand or finger from being pushed into any moving parts 
of machinery. 

All dangerous gears, chains and sprockets, belts and 
pulleys, shafting, spindles, friction clutches, balance wheels, 
and revolving and reciprocating parts of machinery, should 
be completely safeguarded. No projecting set screws, 
keys, or unsafe couplings with projecting nuts and bolt 
ends, should be allowed on shafting. 

The operating points of all dangerous machines, such 
as circular saws, jointers, shapers, rolls, cutting machines, 
shears, punching and stamping presses, etc., should be 
protected with suitable safety devices to prevent workmen 
from being injured. 

Pipe railing, being more durable and substantial, should 
be used in preference to wooden railing. 

Draftsmen should be required to check every drawing for 
safety. Prospective purchasers of machinery should demand 
specifications which provide for adequate safeguards. 

The laws in each state should compel makers of ma- 
chinery to install guards on all gears, chains and sprockets, 
and other dangerous moving parts. This would be a sig- 
nificant advancement toward the elimination of needless 
accidents. Guards of this nature could be made and 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 



27 



attached much cheaper by the maker, than by the manu- 
facturer who uses this machinery. 




Fig. 6 

Inclined bolt guards of angle iron and ex])anded metal 

applied to a wood ])laner and circular rip saw. 

Courtesy Goulds Manufacturing Company. 

Danger Signs. — Danger signs play an important part 
in warning workmen of dangerous machinery and appara- 



28 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



tus, and unsafe workplaces. The display of danger signs, 
however, should not be overdone. Warnings on machin- 
ery and apparatus, which are not especially hazardous, 
lessen the effect of warnings at really dangerous points. 
Exceptionally dangerous machinery, apparatus, and work- 
places should, however, be called to the attention of work- 
men by suitable warning signs, placed in conspicuous 
positions. These signs should be printed in as many lan- 
guages as are spoken by the employees. They should be 
used in any place where unusual danger exists, and where 
the real danger is not apparent. 

The word '^danger" is very effective for all who speak 
English. When the sign is once explained, it also stands 
as a word picture to foreigners. The word should be printed 
in capitals, viz: ^^ DANGER" but not ''Danger." The latter 



DANGER 



DANGER 

HIGH VOLTAGE 



DANGER 

00 NOT TOUCH 




RAILROAD 
DANGER 








OUTOFOROER 
00 NOT TOUCH 




FIRE EXIT 








SAFETY 
FIRST 




ND SMOKING 



Fig. 7 
Danger and warning signs. 



method of printing is not forceful. There should be no em- 
bellishments on the plain ''DANGER" sign. As a rule, 
pictorial signs should be avoided. Such designs detract the 
workmen's attention from the quick warning which danger 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 



29 



signs are intended to convey. The workman is apt to gaze 
on the picture, forgetting the real warning for the moment. 



p^7 




Fig. 8 

Guard of wire mesh and folded sheet metal for inclined belt 

and balance wheel of punch pres.s. 

Courtesy Bausch d* Lomb Optical Company. 

A simple red disc has been generally adopted and ac- 
cepted as the universal danger sign. It would seem better, 



30 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

however, to use the word '^danger" in connection with 
it. The simple ''danger" sign conveys the idea of caution 
and danger more forcibly than the plain red disc. 

When necessary for a special purpose, other words may 
be added or substituted to emphasize a specific hazard. The 
wording should be as brief as possible, and to the point; 
otherwise, the effect of the warning will be lost. Letters 
should be large enough to be readily distinguished by an 
approaching workman before the danger point is neared. 

Signs, which are visible from more than one side, should 
have the warning printed upon both sides. Warning signs 
should be kept on hand for immediate use when occasion 
arises. 

Red has been the universal danger color for many 
years. White letters on a red background make a strong 
contrast. It may be argued that red should not be re- 
tained as the universal danger color, on account of the 
fact that some people cannot distinguish it. The red color, 
however, has sufficient advantages and precedent to war- 
rant continuance of its use as the universal danger color. 

Clothing. — Employees should be instructed to wear no 
loose, baggy, torn clothing, flowing skirts or aprons, un- 
buttoned jumpers, loose suspender straps, gloves, and 
flowing ties, when working about machinery. Females 
should be cautioned to do their hair tightly, or wear caps. 
Ornaments, such as finger rings, bracelets and necklaces, 
should not be worn. Many accidents result from the 
clothing or ornaments, worn by employees, being caught 
in machinery, drawing the victim in, and causing a serious 
or fatal injury. Comparatively tight fitting clothing is 
essential. 

It is of great importance to caution the workmen to 
wear shoes which are properly soled. They should not be 
allowed to wear too thin. Thick. soles prevent accidents 
from stepping on protruding nails in loose boards, broken 
glass, metal scrap and other debris. They also prevent 
the feet from being burned or blistered by acids or other 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 



31 



chemicals and hot floors or articles. Workmen in foundries 
should be required to wear ''Congress" shoes to prevent 
burns from spilled molten metal. If ordinary shoes are worn, 
the spattered metal may catch in the eyelets, lacings, or 
buttonholes and burn through the leather into the flesh. 

Congested Workplaces. — Another factor, bearing upon 
the causation of accidents, is that of congested workplaces. 




Fig. 9 

Safe and sanitary clothing. 

Courtesy Beech-Nut Packing Company. 

Accidents are bound to occur where machinery is installed 
without sufficient space between the machines, or machines 
and the walls. Floor space should not be economized at 
the expense of safety to the workers. Floors, passageways, 
exits, stairways, and fire escapes should be kept clear of 
all loose material and accumulations. There should be 
sufficient clearance about all machinery to render a safe 
passage for workmen. Machines should not be crowded 
together, as this greatly increases the hazard. 



32 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Ignorance. — Many accidents may be attributed to 
ignorance on the part of workmen to the dangers of their 
work and the hazards which surround them. This can be 
overcome by educating employees through safety com- 
mittees in each plant. Employees should be taught to be 
watchful and cautious of their own safety, and that of 
their fellow-workmen. They should be taught to think 
for themselves, and not indulge in any needless risks nor 
take unnecessary chances. They should be forbidden to 
fool during working hours. 

Intoxicants. — Although comparatively little attention 
is usually given to the effect of intoxicating liquor on the 
causation of accidents, this agent has a much more impor- 
tant influence in this connection than is generally believed. 
The influence of intoxicants is, of course, frequently in- 
direct. Many accidents, however, may be directly attrib- 
uted to active intoxication. Habitual use of intoxicants 
afTects the nervous system and impairs the health. It 
greatly reduces the resistant power of the body to disease. 
The brain is detrimentally affected, the mind becomes 
excitable, and the power to think clearly is weakened. 

An active campaign should be carried on by every 
company to eliminate, so far as possible, the use of intoxi- 
cants by employees. In order to secure results, this must 
necessarily take the form of individual effort on the part 
of the management. Workmen should be personally and 
privately urged by the manager or superintendent to re- 
frain from drinking, especially before coming to work and 
during the noon hour. They should also be requested to 
remain away from work in case they have been drinking 
heavily the previous night. In no case should employees 
be allowed to use intoxicating liquor on the premises. 
Pressure should be brought to bear toward the elimination 
of nearby saloons. Attractive lunchrooms and club houses 
should be maintained and food sold at cost, making it 
unnecessary for employees to go elsewhere during the 
daily recess. Every company should clearly impress upon 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 33 

the mind of each workman that those who abstain from 
the use of intoxicating Hc^uor will be first considered for 
promotion. 

Fatigue. — Many accidents are due to fatigue and brain- 
fag, caused by overwork and too long hours. Men who 
work about dangerous machinery should have as short 
hours as j)ossible, consistent with good management. Long 
hours and overwork affect the brain. They make the em- 
ployee dull, unable to think quickly, and therefore ineffi- 
cient. When a workman is overtired, he cannot remain 
constantly on the alert, nor can he remain duly cautious 
of his own or his fellow-workmen's safety. Such a condi- 
tion should not exist in any factory, but, practically, this 
condition is a very general one. 

Illness. — Emplo3^ees, who become sick when they are 
at work, often continue working, rather than submit to 
taking time off. Again, they often go to work when ill. In 
such a condition, a workman has not the full use of his 
normal faculties and, therefore, is unduly susceptible to 
danger. This condition is much the same as fatigue. 
Employees that become ill should be instructed to leave 
their work and report to the doctor at once. Some work- 
men will, of course, profess illness, who are merely feigning, 
but proper management should satisfactorily adjust these 
conditions. 

Thoughtlessness and Carelessness. — A large propor- 
tion of accidents are caused by thoughtlessness on the part 
of workmen. Many call it carelessness. It is really a 
combination of both. The thoughtless or careless work- 
man is always in trouble; he is inefficient, and frequently 
injured. He fails to think before he acts. A form of this 
thoughtlessness may be characterized as absentmindedness. 

Concentration. — Workmen should be taught concen- 
tration of the mind and eye. The workman who is con- 
tinually looking about the workroom at other persons or 
objects, or who is day-dreaming much of the time, is the 
one that is most likely to meet disaster. The operator of a 



34 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 

dangerous machine whose mind or eye is distracted from 
his work, even for a fraction of a second, may become 
caught by moving parts of the machine. The result is 
either a serious or a fatal injury. Concentration can only 
be acquired by practice. The w^orkmen's attention should 
not be distracted by unnecessary noises or extraordinary 
sights, such as might be made by fooling, whistling and 
shouting, or by other needless causes. 

Instruction. — Workmen should be carefully instructed 
by their foreman in the correct methods of performing 
their work in a safe and efficient manner. Especially 
should the new man be w^arned of the dangers incident to 
the work, and the hazards which surround him. In this 
way he will learn to look out for himself. Otherwise, he 
may be injured through ignorance concerning the dangers 
to which he is exposed. The workman, who is not properly 
warned and instructed, does not have a fair chance to 
protect himself from injury. This instruction is a duty 
that necessarily falls upon the foreman. He should not 
fail in giving necessary warnings to the men under his 
control. 

Discipline. — Workmen should be reached through per- 
suasive, rather than through mandatory methods. The 
foreman should show the workman why he should obey 
any rule, and the danger to himself and other employees 
if he disobeys. The foreman should reason with the work- 
men through the art of suggestion, making the workman 
freely admit the desirability of any rule. Workmen should 
be especially warned not to remove safeguards from ma- 
chinery without permission from the foreman. They 
should be instructed to replace the safeguards before the 
machinery is put in operation. Foremen should watch to 
see if their instructions are obeyed. If a workman con- 
tinues to disobey instructions, he should be brought before 
the superintendent and manager for serious talk. If he 
continues to wilfully disobey instructions, he should then 
be discharged. 



GEXERAL OBSERVATIOXS ' 35 

Inspection. — The only way in which buildings, fire 
apparatus, machiner}', safeguards and workplaces can be 
maintained in a safe condition is by frequent and thorough 
inspection by competent men. Every large company 
should employ at least one trained inspector whose en- 
tire time should be devoted to this work. Periodical in- 
spections should also be made by workmen representing 
workmen's committees, and by foremen, in their several 
departments. 

Insurance companies usually offer the best type of in- 
spection service. The majority of their inspectors are men 
who have been trained for this work, and who have gained 
considerable experience of a varied character. They know 
what advancement has been made by the more progres- 
sive companies in all classes of work, how accidents are 
most likeh^ to occur, and where safeguards should be 
applied. Their counsel should be carefulh^ considered by 
employers. 

Inspections by representatives of insurance companies, 
however, are made comparatively infrequently. These 
inspectors are bound to overlook many minor unsafe con- 
ditions which should not exist. Their inspections do not 
cover unsafe practices to any extent. For these reasons, 
it is of prime importance for each company to maintain 
its own inspection department. Safety in any factory or 
workplace depends largeh^ upon frequent, conscientious 
and careful inspection. 

Education of Children and Students. — Children should 
be educated in the art of self-preservation from public 
and industrial dangers. This can be most advantageously 
attained through the schools. Children can be best inter- 
ested by motion pictures of dangerous practices, and 
through illustrated lectures. This form of education should 
comprise matters pertaining to safety, sanitation, and 
hygiene. Little has yet been done in this respect, but 
much should be accomplished in this direction in the 
future. 



36 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

This education should extend to universities, colleges, 
and technical schools. A regular course in safety, sanita- 
tion and hygiene should be formed. Many of these edu- 
cational institutions now maintain courses in the two 
latter subjects, but practically none touches upon matters 
of public and industrial safety. The safety problem is 
daily assuming more importance in industrial work and 
public life. This is a subject which has been sadly neg- 
lected, but which should now receive close attention. 

Education of the Public. — The education of the public 
is a matter that is now being actively promoted by many 
transportation and traction companies, chambers of com- 
merce, societies of various kinds, and other institutions. 
Progressive railroad companies show motion picture plays 
in towns and cities for the benefit of employees. The 
public is invited to attend, admission being free to all. 
The picture plays, stereopticon views, and talks cover many 
hazards of the rail. The public may be reached through 
the press, by prominent posters in stations containing pre- 
cautions which passengers should observe, through time 
tables, and by various other means. 

Members of automobile and other clubs may be reached 
through literature and warnings posted on bulletin boards 
or distributed in circulars. Municipalities should proclaim 
a ^^ Safety First" day which should be celebrated by a 
safety parade and other features. Local safety exhibits 
should be held, and so on. 

The National Exposition of Safety and Sanitation, 
held under the auspices of the American Museum of 
Safety and Sanitation of New York City, is the best an- 
nual safety exposition in this country. Here large manu- 
facturing companies exhibit their safety devices each year. 
Railroad companies, mining companies, and insurance com- 
panies also have exhibits at this exposition. Motion pic- 
tures of various hazards are shown at this time, and many 
interesting talks are given by prominent men who are 
interested in safety work. 



GENERAL OBSERVATIONS 37 

The American Museum of Safety and Sanitation of 
New York has many interesting safety devices on exhibi- 
tion throughout the year. Prominent companies have 
contributed models of safety devices. Photographs, di-uAv- 
ings, and other objects of interest may be seen here. Ad- 
mission is free to all. 



CHAPTER IV 

BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 

These two subjects are so closely allied that it is con- 
venient to treat them under one heading. Although the 
subject of fire prevention lies primarily within the province 
of fire underwriters and experts, it does, however, come 
within the scope of accident prevention. Therefore, it is 
proposed to set forth the general underlying principles of 
fire protection and prevention, although no attempt will 
be made to cover the topic in detail. For further infor- 
mation upon the subject of fire prevention, reference should 
be made to the specifications and requirements of the 
National Board of Fire Underwriters, and to other com- 
plete works. 

The large fires of the past, entailing an enormous loss 
of life and property, are convincing evidence of the urgent 
need of adequate fire protection in our towns and cities. 
Many of the buildings, now in use for manufacturing pur- 
poses in our largest cities, are fire traps of the worst kind. 
Should a fire start in one of these buildings, there would 
be little chance of the workers escaping. The percentage 
of manufacturing buildings in our large cities without ade- 
quate fire protection is amazingly large. This is a condi- 
tion which should not exist. As it does exist, however, 
laws relative to fire protection can hardly be too stringent 
or too rigidly enforced. 

Special attention should be given to fire protection 
wherever new building is contemplated. Equal attention 
should be given to making existing buildings, in which 
labor is employed, as safe from fire hazards as possible. 
All contemplated buildings, over one stor}^ in height, in 



BllLDIXGS AXI) Vini: HAZARD 39 

which labor is to be employed, should be built of fireproof 
or slow-burning construction. Wherever practicable, the 
height of new factory buildings should be limited to four 
stories, especially if the buildings are not to be of fireproof 
construction. This limitation will effectively minimize the 
danger of loss of life in case of fire. 

Construction. — Fireproof construction specifications call 
for non-combustible foundations, walls, floors, ceilings, and 
roofs. Slow-burning (mill) construction specifications call 
for stone, brick or concrete walls; stone or concrete foun- 
dations; floors of planks at least 2f'' thick on beams 
(without joists) on posts, covered with a f" top flooring 
laid diagonally or crossways; roofs of planks at least 2 J" 
thick laid flat, except for the pitch necessary for proper 
drainage. The planking in the floor and roof should be 
splined or tongued and grooved. Fireproof construction 
is, of course, preferable from the standpoint of safety and 
durability, and will usually well repay any extra cost of 
construction. 

Foundations. — The ground for the foundations of new 
buildings of considerable size is usually tested previous to 
construction operations. If necessary, piling, capped with 
concrete footings, should be used. Any possibility of the 
settling of the foundations should be eliminated. Founda- 
tions sometimes settle enough to so weaken the structure, 
where floors are heavil}^ loaded, that the collapse of the 
building is a startling possibility, and occasionally a real- 
ity. Buildings should not be supported by wooden posts, 
or even partially supported by them, when projecting over 
a river l)ank or other depression. The danger from fire 
and unnoticed wood decay is too great to allow the use 
of wooden posts as a supporting medium. Ail foundations 
should be substantially built of stone or reinforced con- 
crete. 

Fire Walls. — It is frequently desirable or necessary, 
on account of the different usages for which parts of a 
l^uilding are designed, to separate departments or sections 



40 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

b}^ means of fire walls. These should be constructed of 
brick, tile, or reinforced concrete at least 12" thick. The 
walls should extend from the basement to a height of 3 
feet above the roof, and should be provided with a non- 
combustible durable coping. The purpose of the fire w^all 
is, of course, to confine a fire to the section in which it 
originates. 

Floors. — Floors should be free from protruding nails, 
holes and splinters. They should not be uneven or slip- 
pery. Where floors will necessarily be wet, due to the 
nature of the work, they should be so graded as to drain 
properly. Floors of boiler houses should never be con- 
structed of wood. They should be built of concrete, brick 
or stone. Reinforced concrete floors, covered with a hard- 
wood top flooring, are preferable for most purposes in 
factory or office buildings. Sand should not be used on 
floors in an effort to prevent slipping, as it enhances the 
possibility of slipping, rather than prevents it. Powdered 
resin should be used instead. Floors should constantly be 
kept free from the accumulation of waste materials, nails, 
tacks and obstructions. They should never be overloaded, 
and if this is suspected or detected, they should be relieved 
without delay. Floors are built for a definite capacity which 
should never be exceeded. 

Floor openings, including stair and hoistway openings, 
should be protected with a standard handrailing 3J feet 
high with a toeboard 6" high at the bottom, and an in- 
termediate horizontal member between the two. (Fig. 10.) 
Where it is impracticable to guard floor openings with a 
permanent railing, a removable railing may be used, or 
the opening may be provided with a hinged cover. 

Stairways and Elevator Shafts. — Main stairways should 
be constructed of iron or reinforced concrete with safety 
treads. The stairway should preferably be built in a fire- 
proof tower on the outside of, and adjoining, the building. 
The tower should be of brick or reinforced concrete, with 
walls at least 12" thick, extending 3 feet above the roof. 



BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 



41 



The tower should be separated from the building by a 
complete fire wall, with entrances at the side of the tower, 
connected to the entrances of the building b}^ iron plat- 




FiG. 10 

Properly guarded stairway opening. 

Courtesy Goulds Manufacturing Company. 



forms of the fire escape type. This makes a semi-indirect 
means of entrance or exit, and assures a safe means of 
escape when a fire is raging in the building. The doors of 
fire towers, if of the swing type, should open inward except 



42 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

the exit doors at the bottom. Windows in fire towers 
should be of wire glass in metal frames. 

Elevator shafts should be built of fireproof construc- 
tion, similarly to stairway towers. If an elevator shaft 
adjoins a stairway, they should be separated by a fire w^all. 
Both stairways and elevator shafts should be equipped 
with automatic fire doors. In case the elevator shaft is 
not thus equipped, it should be provided with automatic 
fireproof trap doors at each floor. 

Each stairway should be equipped with a standard 
handrailing on both sides, placed 3 feet above the center 
of the treads, and at least 2" from the side wall. Open sides 
of stairways should always be provided with hand rails. 
Stairways, over 8 feet wide, should have an additional 
hand rail in the center. Risers should not be over 8" in 
height, and treads should be at least 10'^ wide. Safety 
treads, of non-slip material, should be used on main stair- 
ways. If wooden hand rails are used, they should be 
smooth and free from splinters. All stairways should be 
at least 4 feet wide. Main stairways should be at least 6 
feet wide. Stairways should be kept free from obstructions 
at all times. No materials or articles should be hung on 
the sides of the stairways. No one should be allowed to 
pile material of any kind on stairways. They should be 
well lighted at all times, during working hours. Stairways 
should never be steeply inclined. An inclination of 30 
degrees from the horizontal is a safe average. 

Doors. — Door openings should be equipped with stand- 
ard automatic fire doors, preferably of the sliding type, on 
each side of the wall. Where sliding doors are used, they 
should preferably recede in a complete housing when 
opened. Often, material is carelessly piled next the wall, 
directly behind the fire door, thus making it impossible, in 
an emergency, to open the door from the opposite side. 
A suitable housing will, however, guard against this con- 
tingency. All swing doors, used for exit, should open out- 
ward. Double swing doors, in public or office buildings, 



BUILDINGS AXD FIRE HAZARD 43 

hotels, and restaurants, should l)c built with the upper 
panels of glass, which will enable anyone to see another 
approaching from the opposite side, thereby avoiding a 
possible collision. The counterweights of all doors should 
be encased. Fire doors should always be closed at night, 
and on Sundays and holidays. They should be held, 
when open, by means of fusible links. When the heat 
becomes abnormal, as in the case of a fire, they will 
thus close automatically. Automatic fire doors should be 
frequentl}^ inspected to make sure that they are in working 
order. 

Fire Escapes. — Fire escapes should lead directly from 
each section of the building. They should be of very sub- 
stantial iron construction. They should be constructed 
with treads, and should not be of the ladder variety. Often, 
partially incapacitated workmen are employed who could 
not use a ladder escape, on account of the loss of a hand 
or an arm, or for other reasons. The space between the 
handrailing and treads or platform should be filled in with 
substantial iron grille-work. The railing should be at least 
3 1 feet high to prevent anyone falling off the fire escape. 
Exit to fire escapes should be obtained by means of a door, 
opening outward; never by a window. The platform level 
of the fire escape should be the same as that of the floor 
which it is designed to serve. The intervening threshold 
should not exceed 2" in height. If the exit to any escape 
is obtained by means of a window, the window should be 
converted into a door 6^ feet high, with the bottom of the 
door nearly level with the platform of the fire escape. A 
short stairway, provided with a hand rail on each side, 
should lead from the floor of the workroom to the thresh- 
old of this doorway. If escape is obtained b}^ means of 
one roof to another roof below, a stairway of iron, with 
hand rails on each side should connect the two. All lad- 
ders leading to roofs, for fire-fighting purposes, should be 
permanently constructed, and secureh' fastened at the 
top and bottom. They should be of iron, not wood. 



44 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Exits. — Conspicuous ''exit" signs, with white letters 
on a bright green background, should be placed at all 
places of exit on each floor of every building. (Fig. 11.) 

The exits should also 
be provided with a 
green light, to be used 
when daylight is in- 
sufficient to allow a 
clear view of the sign. 
No obstructions 
should be allowed to 
accumulate at or near 
any exit. Exits and 
passageways should be 
clear at all times dur- 
ing working hours. 
Exit doors should be 
kept unlocked at all 
times when employees 
are working in the 
building. Care should 
be taken to see that 
there are a sufficient 
number of exits. 

Windows. — All 
windows above or be- 
low fire escapes, in fire 
towers, skylights, ele- 
vator shafts, saw-tooth 
roofs, and for a dis- 
tance of at least 10 
feet in the outer walls 




Fig. U 
Properly marked exit to fireproof stairway 
tower. A green glass electric bulb is used to 
display a green light after dark. 

Courtesy Utica Willowvale Bleaching Co. 



of the building on either side of the fire walls, should be 
constructed of wire glass in metal frames. These windows 
withstand a great amount of heat and pressure, and are 
not easily broken. Windows should be frequently washed 
to prevent the accumulation of dust, which greatly reduces 



BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 45 

the volume of light that should be utilized. Windows, at 
intermediate stair landings, should be guarded on the 
inside with a substantial iron grating, grille-work, or bars, 
to prevent anyone from plunging headlong through the 
windows, in case he should accidentally slip on the stairs. 
Windows, which are not constructed of wire glass, should 
be equipped with fireproof shutters. Employees should be 
forbidden to throw articles of any kind through the win- 
dows. 

Roofs. — Roofs should be kept free of loose material 
at all times, otherwise a strong wind might blow it down, 
injuring or killing someone. For this reason all advertis- 
ing signs should be substantially constructed, and fre- 
quently inspected to insure their safe condition. Where 
walls are not extended above flat roofs, a substantial rail- 
ing and toeboard should be constructed to surround the 
roof. This will prevent anyone or any loose material from 
falling. 

Tanks. — All elevated tanks, whether on a roof or an 
individual support, should be provided with a substantial 
platform, guarded with a railing and toeboard, to afford a 
safe means of inspection of all parts. Ladders to tanks 
should be substantially secured at the top and bottom. 
Ladders to platforms on individual supports should be 
caged. During a long climb, the inspector or workman 
can thus find a safe means of resting, and at the same time 
is protected from falling. It is advisable to build a trap 
door in the platform about the tank. This door may be 
closed, thus preventing the inspector from accidentally 
falling into an open hole. All parts of tanks and supports 
should be frequently inspected for defects and deterioration. 

Elevated Footways, Runways and Platforms. — Where 
elevated runways, footways, or platforms are over 4 feet 
above the level of the ground or floor, they should 
be guarded with a standard railing and toeboard. This 
applies, also, to footways about machinery, shafting, foot- 
bridges, and trestles. Openings in the side walls of build- 



46 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ings to yard arms, or overlooking areaways, driveways, 
waterways, or platforms should be guarded with vertically 
sliding gates, or by means of horizontal keeper bars, piv- 
oted at one end. These gates or bars should be kept 
closed at all times when the opening is not in use. 

Boiler and Engine Houses. — Current practice is to 
build boiler and engine houses entirely separate from the 
main buildings, and from each other. They should be 
separated from the main buildings by at least 25 feet. 
This is the safest plan, on account of boiler and flywheel 
explosions. Where they are so separated, there is not 
nearly so much danger to employees in the main buildings. 
It is bad practice to install boilers and engines in the main 
buildings. If they are in houses adjoining the main build- 
ings, the houses should be separated from the main build- 
ings by means of a fire wall and fire door. There should 
be at least two exits in each boiler or engine house. 

Stacks. — Smokestacks should be of brick, reinforced 
concrete, or self-supporting steel. Safety caged ladders 
should be used on stacks. The foundations should be 
sufficiently large and substantial to prevent settling. It 
is advisable to equip stacks and chimneys, steeples, flag- 
poles, peaked roofs, and isolated buildings with lightning 
arresters to prevent damage from this element. The 
conductors should be well grounded, preferably to water 
piping. They should be coated with a protection from cor- 
rosion, and substantially secured and insulated from that 
which they are to protect. Conductors should have no 
sharp curves or bends, and should have as few joints as 
possible. Stacks and chimneys should be occasionally 
inspected at regular interi^als for defects, such as cracks 
and loose bricks. Cracks should be filled and watched, 
and all loose bricks reset. Steel stacks should be regularly 
inspected for corrosion, and should be kept covered with 
a thick coat of paint. 

Electrical Apparatus. — All electrical apparatus should 
be installed with due regard to the fire hazard involved. 



BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 47 

The voltage should be as low as is consistent with working 
requirements. All wiring should be run in metal pipe 
conduits, and not in wooden moulding nor upon knobs 
and cleats. Great care should be taken not to place elec- 
trical apparatus where it can come in contact with inflam- 
mable or explosive material. Spark arresters should be 
placed about open arc lights. Incandescent electric lamps 
should never be placed upon, or draped with, combustible 
material. Paper lamp shades should not be used. Flexible 
cords should not be hung on nails or metal parts of ma- 
chines. Fuses should never be replaced with wire. They 
should be placed in fireproof metal boxes which should be 
kept closed. Fires on or about electrical apparatus should 
never be extinguished with water. This method should 
never be attempted. Instead, powder fire extinguishers 
should be used. Employees should be w^arned of the dan- 
ger of using a stream of water, or other liquid, in con- 
nection with a fire on electrical apparatus, as water is a 
good conductor of electricity. Deaths have resulted from 
this form of carelessness. 

Automatic Sprinklers. — Automatic sprinklers have come 
into general use for purposes of fire protection, and they 
have since proven their worth. All factory buildings 
should be equipped throughout with automatic sprinklers. 
The system may be connected with a tank, standpipe, res- 
ervoir, pump, or public main. In any case, the system 
should be so installed as to be of service during cold 
weather. Precautions should be taken to prevent any 
possibility of the water supply being cut off or disabled 
from exposure. Each automatic sprinkler installation 
should be equipped with an alarm valve, so constructed 
that a flow of water through the system will operate an 
electrical or mechanical gong. It is often advantageous to 
have the alarm system connected to a central station or 
to the public fire department. A dry pipe sprinkler sys- 
tem should only be used in cases where a wet pipe system is 
impracticable, as in buildings which have no heating system. 



48 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Hose. — Where hydrants are used, a suitable hose 
house should be constructed containing a sufficient length 
of hose to reach any building which it is designed to serve. 
The line of hose should be kept properly folded and in 
good condition. The hose house should be kept unlocked 
at all times. Hose stations should be located at conven- 
ient points where they will be most effective. 

Auxiliaries. — Hand drawn chemical carriages should 
be maintained when needed for some special purpose. 
Chemical extinguishers should be located at many con- 
venient places about the factory, in addition to the hose 
lines and sprinkler system. Employees should be instruc- 
ted in the proper methods of using them. Water pails 
should be painted red, with the word ^'fire" in white 
printed on the outside. They should be frequently and 
periodically filled, on account of evaporation of the water. 
Pails filled with sand, or a large supply of sawdust with 
shovels, should be maintained where there is a possibility 
of gasolene or other oil becoming ignited. Heavy woolen 
blankets are also very useful in smothering the flames of 
a fire when it first starts. 

Fire Alarms. — Each factory should have an efficient 
fire alarm system which will warn employees of danger 
when in the most remote parts of the plant. An adequate 
number of boxes and alarm gongs should be installed. The 
system should be tested daily, to make sure it is in perfect 
working order at all times. Emplo^^ees should know the 
location of all boxes, and should be instructed in the proper 
method of using them in case of fire. 

Fire Precautions. — Waste, oily rags, sawdust and other 
refuse should be placed in metal cans or receptacles pro- 
vided with covers. If left lying carelessly about, oily rags 
and waste are apt to take fire spontaneously. Inflammable 
material should be stored in small piles, where possible, 
rather than in one large pile. No inflammable or volatile 
material should be allowed near any machine capable of 
causing a spark. Open lights should never be used in 



BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 49 

rooms where paints, varnish, turpentine, and crude oil 
are used or stored, nor in rooms where explosive gases and 
chemicals are used. These substances should be stored in 
separate buildings. Vats or receptacles containing inflam- 
mable or volatile substances should be provided with close 
fitting covers held open by fusible chain links. The covers 
should be kept closed when possible. Empty boxes, bar- 
rels, kegs, and other rubbish should not be allowed to 
accumulate. Lighted cigar and cigarette stubs, pipe ashes, 
and matches should never be thrown on or near rubbish 
piles, or in other dangerous places where they might start 
a fire. Floors should constantly be swept clean where 
waste rapidly accumulates. All rubbish should be col- 
lected and disposed of each day. 

Safety matches only should be used. Workmen should 
not be allowed to carry any matches, even of the safety 
kind, into the buildings. In this country, the use, sale 
and manufacture of matches containing poisonous white 
phosphorus is forbidden by law. Prior to this law, which 
went into effect several years ago, many cases of phosphorus 
poisoning were prevalent. 

Drip pans should be placed to catch the oil drippings 
from machines, preventing the oil from soaking into the 
floor and rendering the floor slippery. Sawdust, or other 
combustible material, should not be used in the drip pans 
to absorb the oil; sand should be used instead. 

Gas jets, nearer than 3 feet from a combustible ceiling, 
should be provided with heat deflectors, placed at least 6" 
from a combustible ceiling. Gas jets should never be 
placed nearer than 18" from a combustible ceiling, even 
when provided with heat deflectors. Combustible walls, 
within one foot of a gas jet, should be covered with 
asbestos board and tin, with an air space between this 
protector and the wall. The wall behind all swing jets 
should be similarly protected. Swing jets should be pro- 
vided with stops to prevent them from swinging within 
one foot of the wall. Flexible rubber tube connections 



50 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

should be avoided, if possible, but if they are used, the 
cock should be placed at the junction of the tube and 
the pipe, and not at the burner. No attempt should 
ever be made to hunt for a leak with a lighted match or 
other open light. The windows should be immediately 
opened, and the supply of gas turned off, before attempting 
to find the leak. 

Kerosene lamps should never be filled while burning. 
They should be filled by the aid of daylight, and not by 
the aid of an artificial light, other than an electric lamp. 
Gasolene and naphtha lamps should never be used, as they 
are too dangerous. These liquids vaporize freely and are 
likely to be exploded. Special pains should be taken to 
have the rooms well ventilated, where volatile liquids are 
being used or stored, otherwise, the vapors will collect, 
endangering life and property. 

Where coal stoves are used, the pipes should run di- 
rectly to chimneys; never through floors or partitions. 
Combustible walls and ceilings about stoves should be 
covered with sheet metal and asbestos, with an interven- 
ing air space. Hot air and steam pipes, within one foot 
of combustible material or woodwork, should be similarly 
protected. Wood, which is in contact with hot pipes, 
gradually becomes charred, and is then apt to be easily 
ignited. 

In this connection, a word of caution in the use of fire- 
works may not be amiss. In one city in this country, no 
less than eight fires were caused by fire balloons during a 
Fourth of July celebration. Other types of fireworks are 
equally dangerous, and great care should be used in hand- 
ling them. Not only fires result from their careless use, 
but an amazing number of serious accidents as well. 
Shingle roofs and lumber piles should be wet down before 
fireworks are to be used. This is also a wise precaution 
to take in hot dry weather. 

Explosive and Inflammable Liquids. — Gasolene, be- 
cause of its general use and the growing carelessness with 



BUILDINGS AND FIRE HAZARD 51 

which it is handled, has proven itself to be as dangerous 
as ordinary dynamite. The explosive power of gasolene, 
properly mixed with air and compressed, is enormous. 
Unlike the heavier petroleum products, it evaporates con- 
stantly at extremely low temperatures. It is not always 
necessary to ignite gasolene to explode it. Under certain 
atmospheric conditions, in an accumulated vapor, it is 
capable of spontaneous combustion. Gasolene and naphtha 
should be stored in strong metal tanks, vented to the out- 
side atmosphere, at least three feet underground, and at a 
remote distance from other buildings. The filling connec- 
tion for the main supply tank should be located away from 
the main buildings. The ground should slope in a direc- 
tion away from the main buildings, to prevent the gaso- 
lene from running toward the buildings in case it is spilled. 
All buildings, in which gasolene is used, should be of 
fireproof construction. No pits should be allowed in the 
floors. No motors or machinery, capable of causing a 
spark, should be allowed in the same room. If belts pass 
through the room in which gasolene is used, the pulleys 
should be effectively grounded, to prevent static electricity 
from accumulating on the belt and causing a spark. Belt 
openings in the wall should be as small as possible. Belts 
should be greased with acid-free glycerine every week or 
so. The glycerine absorbs moisture, which prevents the 
accumulation of static electricity on the belt, and also 
increases the life of the belt. In a dry atmosphere, a belt 
is often capable of producing an electrical spark var34ng 
from J" to IJ" long, depending upon the size and speed of 
the belt. If the belt is rubbed with resinous substances, 
this tendency is markedly increased. Floors should be of 
concrete, and so sloped that any spilled gasolene will drain 
into removable catch pans, placed in the floor. Spilled 
gasolene should be immediately disposed of. If gasolene is 
stored in a building, which of course should always be 
isolated from the others, it should be kept in evaporation- 
proof and fireproof tanks, vented to the outside atmosphere. 



52 PRACTICAL SAFETY TvIETHODS AND DEVICES 

Cocks, valves, and other connections should be fre- 
quently inspected for leaks and, if found, the leak should 
be immediately stopped and the connection made tight. 
No attempt should be made to hunt for a leak with an 
open light of any kind. The incandescent electric lamp, 
protected with a wire hood, is the only light that should 
be used for this purpose. 

Powder fire extinguishers should be kept on hand, for 
use in extinguishing a gasolene or other oil fire. Pails of 
sand, woolen blankets, and sawdust are also useful. Water 
should never be used in an attempt to quench any oil 
fire. The oil floats on the surface of the water, and this 
only serves to spread the flames. 

Strict rules regarding the methods of handling gasolene, 
and other similar liquids, should be enforced by the fore- 
men. No gasolene should be issued except upon a written 
order from the foreman. It should always be issued in 
safety cans of the non-explosive type. The can should be 
painted a bright red color, with the word ^'gasolene". 
printed in white letters on the front or top. Only a few 
days' supply of gasolene should ever be issued, and any 
which is left over should be returned at night. 

Gasolene should not be used in a room which is heated 
with anything other than hot water or steam pipes. Con- 
spicuous ^^NO smoking" signs should be placed about the 
room, and this rule should be strictly enforced. No lighted 
matches, candles, kerosene lamps, torches, or other open 
lights should be tolerated in a room where gasolene is 
used or stored. Electric lamps, protected from breakage 
by wire hoods, are the only permissible lights in such places. 
Care should be taken to see that all cords and connections 
are well insulated, and that there is no danger from a 
short circuit. 

Oil should never be poured on a fire for the purpose 
of making it burn rapidly. Many bad accidents have 
resulted from this form of carelessness. Oil may be cau- 
tiously applied in small quantities before the fire is started. 



BUILDINGS AXD FIRE HAZARD 53 

if desired, but not after. Even then, great care should be 
exercised in igniting the material. 

Much that has been said of gasolene is applicable to 
other explosive, volatile, and inflammable liquids and 
material. 

Dust Explosions. — Under certain conditions, the dust 
of many organic substances, such as flour, coal, starch, 
sugar, rice, meal, grain, bran, etc., is capable of exploding 
with tremendous violence. Many serious dust explosions 
in flour mills and coal mines have occurred from time to 
time, which have resulted in a large loss of life and prop- 
erty. The dust of the above named and similar substances 
becomes especially dangerous when it is suspended in the 
air in a finely divided state. It may also be ignited when 
deposited on floors, walls, ceilings, elevators, belts, shaft- 
ing, machinery, etc., the resulting blaze causing an explo- 
sion. Dry wheat dust will explode when only 0.034 of an 
ounce is suspended in each cubic foot of air. Under the 
same conditions, an equal amount of coal dust forms an 
explosive mixture. Explosions are likely to take place in 
grain elevators under favorable conditions, although they 
usually occur in grinding and rolling mills. 

Explosions are caused by sparks from grinding stones, 
belts, machinery, and electrical apparatus; also, by lighted 
matches and other open lights. Workmen should be for- 
bidden to take matches into a mill or an elevator. The 
use of open lights of any kind should be strictly prohibited. 
Motors and electrical switches should be encased in ex- 
plosion-proof enclosures. Oil switches may be used. Pul- 
leys should be grounded to prevent static electricity from 
accumulating on the belts. All possible precautions should 
be taken to prevent the occurrence of sparks and the use 
of open lights. Dust explosions, in addition to the damage 
which they directly cause themselves, are invariably fol- 
lowed by serious fires. 



CHAPTER V 

EXIT FIRE DRILLS 

Organized exit fire drills should be inaugurated, and a 
definite duty assigned to each employee. The foremen 
should take charge, and see that order is maintained in 
their departments. Drills should be held at least once a 
month, and should be called at times previously unknown 
to the employees. Foremen should take special pains to 
impress upon every employee the seriousness of the fire 
drills, and warn employees against the dangers of a panic. 
They should also impress upon the employees the safety 
in using the fire escapes or fire towers. 

Organization. — The organization should consist of a 
Chief, Floor Chiefs, Room Captains, Stairway Guards, 
Searchers and Inspectors. The Manager or Superintend- 
ent, or other person in authority, and with the proper 
qualifications, should act as the Fire Chief. He should 
supervise all maneuvers, and select persons to fill the dif- 
ferent positions of the organization. He should fix a time 
for drills, and see that the employees comply with all of 
the rules and regulations. 

Floor Chiefs, preferably foremen, should be selected 
to take complete charge of each floor. They should be 
held personally responsible for the enforcement of all 
rules, and should report any employees who neglect to 
observe the rules. They should see that the aisles and 
passageways are kept clear of chairs, stock and other 
material. They should give orders to those under their 
supervision, and see that all movements are properly 
executed. 

Room Captains should preferably be foremen, or assis- 
tant foremen, who have authority over those in their 



EXIT FIRE DRILLS 55 

departments. The}^ should be selected for their ability 
and cool-headedness, and capacity to maintain the neces- 
sary control over emplo^'ees. There should be a room cap- 
tain for every fifty employees. 

Stairway Guards should be selected for their strength 
and alertness, and capacity to act quickly in an emer- 
gency. Two men should be placed at each exit, or on each 
stairway. If on a stairway, one should be stationed at 
the top, and the other at the landing midway between the 
floors. Stairway Guards should take orders from the Room 
Captains. They should do all in their power to prevent 
unnecessary haste and crowding, and see that all employees 
march in order down the stairway to safety. 

Searchers, selected for their strength and cool-headed- 
ness, should be assigned to visit toilet rooms, or other rooms 
in which there ma}^ be occupants who cannot hear the sig- 
nal. They should also care for any employees who become 
hysterical or faint. 

Inspectors should be appointed to make a daily exam- 
ination, and fill out a report, as to the condition of all 
stairways, fire escapes, exits, etc. They should immedi- 
ately report any defects. They should see that all exits 
are unlocked during working hours, and that no stair- 
ways, aisles or passageways are obstructed in any way 
by material, or other objects. Exits should be plainly 
marked. 

Drills. — Every employee should know the exact loca- 
tion of all fire apparatus and alarms, and how to use them 
in case of emergency. Records should be kept of the 
maxinnim time it takes to empty each building. As soon 
as the alarm is sounded, employees should clear all aisles 
and passageways of obstructions, and then immediately 
form in line, either single or double file, as the circum- 
stances recommend. If in double file, employees should 
link arms for mutual support. The lines should start on 
a motion signal from either the Floor Chief or Room Cap- 
tain, and continue on to stairways or fire escapes. 



56 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

No employees, or other persons, should be permitted to 
attempt to secure or recover clothing, or other articles, from 
the lockers, cloak rooms, or elsewhere, after an alarm has been 
sounded. 

The assignment of exits for the different floors should 
be based upon the relative discharging capacities, and upon 
a result of actual tests. In these trials, every available 
exit, including those reached by the way of the roof, should 
be considered. The greatest efficiency can only be ob- 
tained by frequent drills, and by having the foremen 
impress upon all of the employees the importance of comply- 
ing with all rules and regulations. Frequent fire drills so 
accustom the employees to forming lines, and marching 
quickly to safety, that it becomes a habit; and when a 
real fire occurs, there should be little or no confusion. 



CHAPTER VI 

ORGANIZATION OF FIRE BRIGADES 

The organization of a fire brigade, in any plant, de- 
pends upon local conditions, and must, therefore, be or- 
ganized to suit the requirements at hand. The degree of 
efficiency will depend largely upon the care and judgment 
exercised in selecting and training the men. Employees 
should be selected who are sober, strong, reliable, cool- 
headed and well posted in regard to the location of all fire 
apparatus, stairways, elevators and buildings in general. 

The fire brigade should be organized under a constitu- 
tion, with its own by-laws. Regular meetings should be 
held. Some special distinction should be conferred upon 
members; and membership should be deemed a privilege 
by employees. 

Company organization should be designed to afford 
men special knowledge and experience in their respective 
duties. They should be so instructed and trained that 
they will be able to perform their duties to the best advan- 
tage, when a fire occurs. 

Officers. — The brigade should consist of a chief, pref- 
erably the master mechanic or factory manager, who has 
a thorough knowledge of the factory and its equipment. 
There should also be an assistant chief, who should per- 
form the duties of the chief in his absence, or perform 
other services as the chief may direct. 

Shop foremen should be selected as captains of com- 
panies, and those men should be selected who are thor- 
oughly familiar with the buildings and all fire apparatus. 
Every fire company should have a lieutenant, who should 
take charge in the absence of the captain. 



58 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Hose Company. — The hose company should consist of 
at least ten men, including the captain and lieutenant, 
in order that there may be a sufficient number to lay and 
operate the hose lines in a reasonable length of time. One 
man should be assigned to hydrant duty, and at least four 
men to each line of hose. No one company should operate 
more than two lines of hose, except under special con- 
ditions. The men selected for this work should be strong, 
gritty, active, reliable, and not easily subject to fatigue. 

Hook and Ladder Company. — The hook and ladder 
company should consist of at least nine men, including a 
captain and lieutenant. They should be trained in placing 
ladders; in the handling and use of chemical extinguishers 
of the truck; in opening roofs, floors, partitions; in wreck- 
ing, and such other duties as may be necessary. 

Chemical Engine Company. — This company should 
consist of six men, including a captain and lieutenant. 
Two men should have charge of operating the engine tank, 
and of opening and closing the main tank valve, in addi- 
tion to agitating and mixing the chemical charge, and of 
recharging. The men should be familiar with the opera- 
tion of the engine. Two men should be selected to carry 
and direct the nozzle, and assist in handling the line of 
hose. 

Standpipe Company. — Where the plant is equipped 
with an interior standpipe system, a company should be 
organized, consisting of at least four men to each hose 
line, with a captain and lieutenant. Each hose line should 
have a valve man and two pipe men. The valve men 
should turn the water on and off, and assist in unreeling 
the hose. The pipe men should handle the play pipe 
and assist in unreeling and laying of hose. 

Fire Pails and Chemical Extinguishers. — A special de- 
tachment of men should be delegated to handle chemical 
extinguishers, fire pails and other equipment. 

Pumps. — Where pumps are used in the fire service, 
the engineer, and his assistants, should be made members 



ORGAXIZATIOX OF FIRE BRIDAGES 59 

of the brigade. They should remain on duty, operate the 
pumps, and see that sufficient steam pressure is main- 
tained to give efficient service. 

Salvage Corps. — Several trustworthy employees, under 
the direction of a captain and lieutenant, should be ap- 
pointed to assist in the recovering of valuable books, stock, 
fixtures or other material, and to prevent water damage, 
where possible. They should be provided with rubber 
blankets and other equipment, which they can use to 
advantage at the time. 

Drills. — Fire drills should be held at least once a 
month, and should have two main objects: first, prompt- 
ness in reaching the point of fire by designated routes; 
second, practice in handling all fire apparatus and appli- 
ances. Alarms should be sounded at times previously 
unknown to employees. The drill should be carried out as 
if there were an actual fire in a certain building. 

The location of the objective point should be changed 
with each drill, in order that employees ma\^ get a thorough 
knowledge of the interior and location of fire apparatus in 
every building in the plant. 



CHAPTER VII 

BOILERS 

Types. — There are many types and combinations of 
boilers, all of which have certain advantages in the par- 
ticular uses to which they are adapted. They may be of 
the stationary, locomotive, marine, portable and semi- 
portable; horizontal or vertical; internally or externally 
fired; shell, sectional, water-tube, and fire-tube types. 
There are also different kinds of coal-burning, gas-burning, 
and oil-burning boilers. All of these features give rise 
to many different forms and a great variety of con- 
struction. 

Strength of Boilers. — The strength of a riveted joint 
is always less than that of the solid plate because some of 
the plate is cut away for the rivets. The efficiency of a 
riveted joint is the ratio of the strength of the joint to 
the strength of the solid plate. The tensile strength of 
the metal between the rivet holes should be in general 
about equal to the shearing strength of the rivets. It 
must be remembered that a boiler can be no stronger than 
its weakest joint. The design of joints and other details 
should be placed in the hands of an expert. 

Boiler plate may be manufactured of wrought iron or 
mild steel. At the present time nearly all boiler plates 
are made of steel, manufactured by the open-hearth pro- 
cess. The tensile strength should be from 55,000 to 65,000 
lbs. per sq. in. Test pieces should be subjected to the 
various tests called for in the specifications, such as tensile 
and elongation tests, bending tests, homogeniety tests, 
tests for yield point and chemical analysis. The purchaser 
should insist on standard specifications. 



BOILERS • 61 

A representative of the purchaser should be allowed to 
witness all tests called for in the specifications at the place 
of manufacture, prior to shipment, in order to satisfy him- 
self that the material is furnished in accordance with the 
specifications. 

Factor of Safety. — If a boiler is well designed and 
carefully made, a factor of safety of four on the strength 
should suffice when the boiler is new. This factor should 
allow for a reasonable amount of corrosion and wear. 
However, a factor of safety of five and even six is not in- 
frequently used. A higher factor than four should be used 
where there remains any doubt as to the strength of the 
boiler, depending of course upon the existing conditions. 

Cast Iron. — Cast iron is particularly susceptible to flaws, 
due to unequal cooling in the moulds. It is, therefore, 
an unsuitable material to withstand high steam pres- 
sures. It is also too brittle a material for safe use. Fit- 
tings, manholes, handholes, flanges, pipes, and other boiler 
accessories should not be made of cast iron. Malleable 
iron or cast steel should be used instead. 

Joints. — Lap joints are undesirable in the construc- 
tion of a boiler for the reason that serious bending stresses 
are produced by contraction and expansion of the metal 
under changes of temperature. Thus a crack may develop 
under and along the rows of rivets, which will remain un- 
detected, unless the rivets are cut and the plates parted 
for an examination. 

Butt joints are far preferable and should be exclusively 
used. With this construction, the plates form a true arc 
of a circle at the joint. They are, therefore, not subjected 
to the bending action above described. The butt joint 
also has a much higher efficiency of strength, which is 
important with high steam pressures now in general use. 

The circular seams of horizontal tul)ular boilers should 
lap away from the fire. Horizontal seams should be on 
the upper half of the boiler when set, and not exposed to 
the direct flames of the fire. 



62 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Rivet Holes. — All rivet holes should be drilled with 
the sheets bolted in place. The plates should then be 
moved apart, and the burr on the edge of the holes re- 
moved. Where it becomes necessary to punch holes in 
plates, they should be punched at least one-fourth of an 
inch smaller than the diameter of the rivets. The holes 
should then be increased to full size by means of a reamer. 
Holes should never be punched full size. Tapered drift 
pins should not be used to enlarge holes. This would 
strain and weaken the plate near the holes. 

Patches. — Patches should not be resorted to in case 
part of a plate becomes burned, cracked or corroded. The 
whole sheet should be replaced. 

Setting Tubes. — Tubes of water-tube boilers should 
be rolled and belled. Tubes of fire-tube boilers should be 
rolled and beaded. Holes for tubes should be drilled and 
chamfered. Expanding of tubes should be carefully done 
by an experienced workman. Where the tubes are beaded, 
there is little opportunity for soot, which induces corrosion, 
to collect at the ends of the tubes. The staying power of 
the tubes is also thus increased. 

Staying. — Many different methods of staying for dif- 
ferent types of boilers are used. The placing of stays and 
arrangement of details are an important part of boiler 
design, and should be worked out by an experienced de- 
signer for each individual type of boiler. All plates, that 
are not cylindrical or hemispherical in shape, require stay- 
ing, in order that they may hold their shape. The staying 
of flat plates is accomplished by symmetrically arranging a 
number of supports for fastening stays. This will evenly 
hold the plate against pressure. 

Manholes. — The manhole should be large enough to 
easily admit an average size man into the boiler. An 
elhptical manhole opening should not be less than 11" X 
15" or 10" X 16" in size. A circular manhole opening should 
not be less than 15" in diameter. The ring should be 
strong enough to compensate for the plate which is cut 



BOILERS 63 

out. Manhole plates should be of cast or wrought steel. 
Cast iron should not be used. The manhole cover should 
be so placed inside the ring that it will be held to its seat 
by steam-pressure, being drawn up to its seat by a bolt 
and removable yolk. Horizontal tubular boilers should 
have two manholes to facilitate proper inspection and 
cleaning; one above the tubes in the shell, and one below 
the tubes in the front head. The manhole in the shell 
should be cut with the long diameter girth wise. 

Handholes. — Handholes for aiding in washing out 
and cleaning should be provided at different parts of the 
boiler. In the case of horizontal tubular boilers, if there 
is a manhole under the tubes in the front head, there is 
no need of a handhole in the rear head. Where there is 
no manhole in the front head, handholes should be placed 
under the tubes at both the front and rear heads. 

' Settings and Supports. — Boiler supports should, in all 
cases, be made of structural steel, where the boiler is not 
self-supporting on the foundation. The supports of water- 
tube boilers should, so far as the movements of either the 
boiler or setting due to heating are concerned, be inde- 
pendent of the brickwork of the setting. 

Where two horizontal water-tube boilers are set together 
in one battery, continuous girders, from which the boilers 
are to be suspended, should be run over the boilers from 
one side of the battery to the other. These girders should 
be strong enough to safely support the boilers without 
the aid of vertical columns set in the division walls of the 
boilers. Cast iron brackets on boiler shells should never 
be used. 

Boiler fronts should always be bolted to the settings in 
such a way that they will not become loose when the 
brickwork is removed. 

In the case of gas-fired boilers, one or more explosion 
doors should be fitted into the wall of the setting, commu- 
nicating with the last pass. The seats of these doors should 
be set at an angle by means of which gravity closure is 



64 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

obtainable. At the same time, they should be free to open 
in case excessive pressure is developed in the setting. 

It is particularly important, in the case of boilers which 
have large bottom drums, such as those of the Stirling 
type, to keep the brickwork around the windows at the 
ends of the drums entirely free from contact with the 
metal surface. These windows should be closed by means 
of a separate tight-fitting cast iron door, attached to a 
circular casing, which is properly fitted to the brickwork. 

Water Columns. — Each boiler should be equipped with 
a water column and fittings, so located that a clear view 
of the gauge glass from the boiler room floor will not be 
intercepted by a stairway, platform, or any other object. 

Water columns should be of an approved design, each 
fitted with three try cocks of the lever type. These should 
be connected by chains or rods to handles which are read- 
ily accessible from the boiler room floor and operating plat- 
form. No valves should be permitted between the water 
column and the boiler. The pipe from the water column 
to the boiler should be connected by means of steel flanges 
riveted to the shell. Tapped connections should not be 
used for the support of water columns. Crosses and plugs, 
which will give ready access for internal cleaning of the 
water column, should be used in the steam and water con- 
nections. Ells should not be used. 

Water columns of horizontal tubular boilers should be 
so set that the difference of level between the bottom try 
cock, and the level of the top row of tubes, will be at 
least 3 inches. Gauge glasses should be so set that the 
lowest visible level of the water will correspond to a IJ 
inch water level over the tubes. Drain connections from 
the water column should have an open end to the ash 
pit. There should be a receiver of sufficient size at the 
bottom of the water column in which sediment may collect 
and be blown out. Metallic unions should be used, 
obviating the use of soft packing material. Pipe connec- 
tions, leading to the water column, should be covered. 



BOILERS 



65 



Special annealed glass should be used 
column. Glass above the water level is 
chemical action of condensing steam. In 



for the water 
subject to the 

the course of 
then likely to 
As the glass is 



time, the glass will become worn. It is 
burst from the high pressure of the steam. 
very brittle, it will oxj^lode into 
countless fragments. These may be 
lodged in the eyes of attendants, 
unless the glass is properly guarded. 
]\Iany eyes have been lost through 
the bursting of boiler gauge glasses. 
The glass should be provided with 
a suitable guard, which will pro- 
tect the eyes of attendants, in case 
the glass bursts. Fig. 12 shows an 
excellent type of wire-glass guard. 
This forms an integral part of the 
water column. It must be in posi- 
tion before the joints around the 
tubular glass can be made. The 
wire-glass is of special quality, 
affording ample protection from 
all shocks and stresses and flying 
particles of broken glass, in case 
the tube bursts. Steam, water, and 
fragments of glass must escape 
through a tortuous passage around 
a vertical baffle plate into ample back 
space. The steam is then allowed to escape through a fine wire- 
mesh screen, while the discharge port at the bottom releases 
the flow of water, safely carrying some of the broken frag- 
ments of glass to the deck. The wire-glass guard enables the 
attendant to obtain a clear view of the water level at all times. 
It also allows a safe approach for closing the valves in case the 
tubular glass bursts. Swivel metal guards are also used, but 
they do not offer as good protection. In case the gauge 
glass bursts, the water valve should be closed first. 




Fig. 12 
Wire-glass watergauge guard. 

Courtesy Sargent Company, 
Chicago. 



66 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 

The water column connections are apt to become 
clogged from sediment or incrustation, holding water in 
the tube when there is insufficient water in the boiler. 
Thus a false indication of the water level may be shown. 
For this reason, reliance should not be placed on the water 
level shown in the gauge glass, but the gauge cocks should 
be frequently tested. Steam, which escapes from the upper 
cock when opened, becomes superheated as it blows into 
the atmosphere, showing a bluish color. When the lower 
cock is opened, hot water should be discharged. This 
will flash into steam as it escapes, but has a whitish ap- 
pearance in contrast to this bluish color of the steam 
w^hich escapes from the upper cock. 

When either cock of the water column is closed, the 
water level in the glass tube will rise. When the upper 
cock is closed, the steam in the upper part of the tube 
will gradually be condensed by radiation, and replaced by 
water. When the lower valve is closed, the steam in the 
tube will be partly condensed, causing the water level 
to rise. 

When cleaning a tube, a wire should never be forced 
through. This might scratch the glass. The slightest 
scratch will cause it to gradually weaken at this point. 
This may later cause the tube to explode. The glass tube 
may be cleaned, when in place, by closing the lower cock 
and opening the drain cock, blowing steam through. Tubes 
should not be allowed to become dirty. When they be- 
come so stained that a clear view of the water level can- 
not be obtained, they should be replaced with new ones. 

Each water gauge glass should be especially well lighted. 

High and Low Water Alarms. — High and low water 
alarms are not recommended, as they are unnecessary, 
and tend to encourage carelessness among attendants. 

Fusible Plugs. — In case the plate is in danger of be- 
coming overheated, the fusible metal in the plugs, which 
are screwed into the plate at various points, will melt 
and flow out, allowing the steam and water to blow into 



BOILERS 67 

the furnace. This will put out or check the fire, calling 
the attention of the attendant. Plugs should be kept clean, 
otherwise they will not act. They should also be re- 
placed with new ones at least once a year, as the melting 
point tends to rise under continued heat. The plug should 
be conical in shape, so that it cannot be blown out by the 
steam pressure. If the plugs and plate are allowed to be- 
come covered with scale, the metal may melt and run out 
without giving any warning. In general, fusible plugs 
should be placed at the lowest permissible water level, in 
the direct path of the products of combustion, and as 
near the primary combustion chamber as possible. 

Steam Gauges. — Each boiler should be provided with 
an individual steam gauge, directly attached to the boiler 
by means of a syphon of sufficient capacity to insure the 
gauge tube being kept full of water. No valve, other than 
the gauge cock, should be allowed between the gauge and 
the boiler. 

At least one recording gauge should be connected to 
each steam system, so that, in case an accident occurs, 
there will always be an available record of the steam pres- 
sure at that time. 

Steam gauges should be carefully adjusted and fre- 
quently tested to insure correct readings. When the 
safety valve is blowing off, the pressure indicated by the 
steam gauge should be observed. If this does not agree 
with the pressure at which the safety valve is set to blow 
off, the trouble should be located and corrected. If steam 
gauges on boilers, which are being cut in, register incor- 
rectly, unequal pressures between the boilers will be likely 
to cause an explosion. 

Safety Valves. — At least two, spring-loaded, pop safety 
valves should be installed on each boiler. These should 
be directly connected by separate steam nozzles, having 
no communication with any other part of the steam sys- 
tem. Under no circumstances should a valve or any other 
fitting be allowed between the safety valve and the boiler, 



68 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

nor in the escape pipe. The casing surrounding the safety 
valve spring should be so locked that only authorized per- 
sons can obtain access to the spring for inspection and 
adjustment. A testing lever should project through the 
casing, so that the valve may be lifted from its seat at the 
time of its periodical inspection. 

Each safety valve should be of sufficient capacity to 
discharge all the steam that the boiler will produce when 
it is evaporating at its normal capacity. The escape pipe 
should not be less in internal diameter than the valve. 

Existing rules and statutes governing safety valves are 
not safe to follow. They assume that valves of the same 
nominal size have the same relieving capacity, and they 
rate them the same without distinction, in spite of the 
fact that in actual practice some of them have but one- 
third the capacity of others. These rules also assume that 
the lift varies as the valve diameter, while in reality the 
lift does not vary nearly as rapidly as the diameter. More- 
over, the lifts assumed for the larger valves are nearly 
double the actual average obtained in practice. Thus dif- 
ferent makes of safety valves, which actually vary in lift 
and relieving capacity over 300 per cent, are rated exactly 
alike. It is therefore the duty of all who are responsible 
for steam installation and operation to leave the determin- 
ation of safety valve size and selection no longer to such 
rules and statutes as may exist in their territory, but to 
investigate for themselves. 

The springs of safety valves become gradually weaker 
with use. In order that a weakened spring may continue 
to resist the pressure, it must be further compressed. This 
reduces the pitch of the spring and the lift of the valve. 
Therefore, a record should be kept of the lift of the valve, 
and its rated capacity. All valves should be examined at 
least once a year, to make sure that the original lift is 
approximately maintained. 

Escape pipes should be vertical, having an outlet 
through the roof of the boiler house wherever practicable. 



BOILERS 69 

Horizontal escape pipes should be avoided in all cases, as 
they produce severe thrusts on the boiler nozzles when a 
violent escape of steam occurs. Drain pipes, opening to 
ash pits, should be placed on escape pipes, as near the 
safety valves as possible. 

Wherever lever safety valves are used, the weights 
should be locked in the proper position, thus preventing 
them from being moved by an unauthorized person. The 
safety valve should never be overweighted or wedged 
down, preventing the boiler from blowing off steam. This 
practice is likely to result in an explosion. 

Safety valves should be properly adjusted and receive 
constant care. They should be tested at least twice a day 
by lifting them gently off their seats. This will insure 
freedom of operation. Safety valves should also be fre- 
quently tested by comparing the pressure at which they 
are set to blow off with the pressure indicated by the steam 
gauges. The adjustment of safety valves should be per- 
formed by an experienced engineer. A safety valve should 
be adjusted by means of two steam gauges, instead of one, 
to obtain a careful check on the work. 

Stop and Automatic Cut-off Valves. — Stop valves, as 
w^ell as any valves on a high pressure line, should be 
opened and closed gradually. If provided with a by-pass, 
the latter should be used for the admission of steam before 
the main valve is opened. Valves should be placed in 
such a position that no pocket can be formed in which 
water might collect. Where two or more boilers are con- 
nected to a common header, there should be an automatic 
cut-off valve in addition to the main stop valve. The 
automatic cut-off valve should be placed between the 
main stop valve and the nozzle of the boiler, as near the 
nozzle as possible. The valve should be of the triple- 
acting type, protecting the line as wxll as the boiler. This 
type of valve will close automatically if any part of the 
boiler gives way, thus preventing the steam from the other 
boilers entering the disabled boiler; or, it will close in 



70 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

case a steam pipe bursts or a header blows out. It will 
prevent an accident caused by opening a valve too quickly, 
also preventing steam from entering the boiler when a 
man is inside. The automatic cut-off valve should be 
provided with a lever, indicating whether the valve is 
open or closed. 

Feed Water Connections. — There should be two inde- 
pendent means of feeding water to a boiler. In case one 
system fails, the other may be used. The feed pipe should 
be equipped with a stop valve and a check valve placed 
near the boiler. The stop valve should be placed between 
the check valve and the boiler. There should also be a 
stop valve between the main feed line, if the boiler is one 
of a battery, or near the feed pump, in case of an isolated 
boiler. A drain pipe should be provided between the 
valve at the main feed line and the stop valve at the boiler. 
This will prevent the accumulation of water pressure, in case 
the former valve should leak when the boiler is out of service. 

The feed pipe should deliver water considerably below 
the lowest water level of the boiler. The feed water should 
be discharged in such a place in the shell that it will not 
come in immediate contact with the plates which are ex- 
posed to a high temperature. Cold water should never be 
fed to a boiler. It would cause parts to weaken under large 
variations of temperature. Feed water should be preheated 
by means of a feed water heater. The feed pipe should be 
equipped with a feed regulating valve. Wherever feed 
water regulators are used, they should be accompanied by 
governors placed on the boiler feed pumps. 

Feed Pumps. — Each boiler plant, consisting of more 
than one boiler, should be equipped with feed pumps in 
duplicate. If direct acting pumps are used, they should 
be of the outside packed plunger type. For a single boiler 
the feeding system may consist of one steam pump and 
one steam injector, or of two steam injectors. 

Feed pumps should be so located with reference to the 
lowest level of water in feed water heaters, that there will 



BOILERS 71 

be a sufficient head on the inlet valves of pumps, at all 
times, to overcome the frictional resistance of the valves, 
to provide the necessary velocity of flow to the pump, 
and to overcome the vapor pressure due to the tempera- 
ture of the feed water in the pump chambers. Valves for 
feed pumps should be of the metallic, hard rubber, or 
fiber type, capable of withstanding disintegration under the 
high temperatures which exist. 

Where economizers are used, the feed pipe system should 
be provided with a relief valve, protecting economizers and 
feed piping from excessive pressure and shocks. 

Feed pumps should be equipped with governors which 
will maintain a constant excess pressure in the feed pipe 
above the boiler steam pressure. 

Feed Water HeaterSc — Some type of a feed water 
heater should be used in connection with boilers, as the 
admission of cold feed water causes excessive contraction, 
which strains the boiler and causes weakness. 

In the open type of feed water heater, the exhaust 
steam from the engine and pumps mingles with and heats 
the feed water in the feed water heater to the proper tem- 
perature before entering the boiler. Exhaust steam from 
the engine and pumps should never be allowed to find its 
way back to the boiler, therefore the open type of feed 
water heater should not be used. 

Closed feed water heaters prevent the exhaust steam, 
used for heating, from mingling with the feed water, the 
exhaust steam being kept separate by means of coils or 
pipes through which it passes; or, the feed water may 
pass through water tubes with the exhaust steam on the 
outside of the tubes in a steam chamber. This prevents 
oil from getting into the feed water. In the latter case, 
however, there is no provision for removing the scale 
from the heater. Oil will collect on the steam side of the 
tubes and scale on the water side. The scale is not 
easily removed. This is a disadvantage for this type of 
heater. 



72 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

A combined live steam purifier and heater is the best 
device for heating the water, rendering it pure. This is 
in effect an open feed water heater, through which Uve 
steam, direct from the boiler, is passed. This preheats the 
feed water before it enters the boiler. It must be strongly 
built to withstand the steam pressure. It should be pro- 
vided with a safety valve, to relieve the pressure should it 
become too high; also, with an air vent to release the air, 
which is contained in the feed water. No provision need 
be made for oil removal, as the steam for heating the feed 
water comes directly from the boiler. In this case, the 
action is the same as that of an open feed water heater, 
except that the feed water is raised to a higher tempera- 
ture before it enters the boiler. 

Open feed water heaters should be provided with an 
automatic overflow valve, so there will be no danger of 
the water level rising above the exhaust opening, flooding 
the engine. 

Steam Mains and Connections. — Steam headers, re- 
ceiving steam from several boilers, should be placed at a 
sufficient distance from the nozzles of the boilers to permit 
the use of ^^ goose-neck" connections, capable of consid- 
erable expansion without introducing dangerous stresses 
on flanges and nozzles. A straight connection from the 
nozzle to the header should be avoided. A bottom con- 
nection to the header should not be used. Where a line 
is reduced from one size to another, eccentric fittings should 
be employed. These will bring the bottom of the differ- 
ent size pipes to the same grade line, thus avoiding pockets. 

Pressed or rolled steel flanges should be exclusively 
used. Cast iron flanges should not be permitted. Sections 
of pipe should not be bolted in place until the companion 
faces of the flanges are machined to true parallel planes. 
Flanges should match properly without the necessity of 
springing the pipe into place. If they do not flt properly, 
the section should be fitted to a prepared template, mak- 
ing the necessary alterations. 



]5()ILERS 73 

A gate stop vah'c of approved construction should be 
set in the "goose-neck" connection, as near the steam 
header as possible. In all cases, the threads of the valve 
stem should be outside the valve casing. A non-return 
valve of the triple-acting type should be set in the '^ goose- 
neck" connection as near the nozzle as practicable. The 
valve should be provided with an effective cushioning de- 
vice, preventing hammering and destruction of the seat, 
when the pressure on each side of the valve is nearly 
equal. 

Drain pipes, preventing the formation of water pockets 
when the valves are shut, should be placed in the '^goose- 
neck" connection, one just above the stop valve, and one 
just above the non-return valve. These drain pipes should 
lead to traps which will automatically remove water that 
may collect. The outlets from these drain pipes should be 
so placed in the traps that water cannot return through 
these pipes. A check valve should be set in each drain 
pipe, preventing the backward flow of steam when the 
boiler is cut out of service. 

Baffle Plates. — A baffle plate should be placed in the 
drum under the steam nozzle of each boiler. It should be 
attached by angle irons, riveted to the interior of the steam 
drum or boiler shell. This baffle plate should extend about 
3 feet from each side of the steam nozzle, being located 
alDout 8 inches below the top of the shell. 

These baffle plates serve to take the moisture out of 
the steam before it enters the pipe system. Steam, on 
its way to the nozzle, passes around the ends of the baffle 
plate. The plate is perforated with small holes for the 
discharge of water which collects from the steam before it 
enters the nozzle. Dry pipes may also be used in lieu of 
baffle plates. 

Steam separators are also useful in separating water 
from the steam just before it enters the engine. It is im- 
portant to furnish the engine \yith dry steam. Wet steam 
is injurious and less efficient. 



74 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Domes should not be placed on boilers. If extra steam 
space is required, a steam drum should be used. The 
use of a dome weakens the boiler. 

Superheaters. — Superheaters are useful in obtaining 
dry steam. They also increase the energy in steam above 
that which it possesses when only saturated. Steam which 
is too highly superheated, however, is likely to warp the 
ordinary slide and Corliss valves. Too high a tempera- 
ture also causes some difficulty in the lubrication of the 
piston and valve rods. A steam temperature of 500 degrees 
F. corresponds to about 130 degrees of superheat at 150 
pounds pressure. This amount of superheat insures dry 
steam in the ordinary forms of engines. 

Blow-off Connections. — When the blow-off branch pipes 
are so located as to be exposed to the hot products of 
combustion, they should be protected by fire-brick piers. 
A sufficient space should be provided for the inspection of 
all parts of the blow-off connection. No part of the con- 
nection should be allowed to come in contact with brick- 
work or fine dust. Blow-off valves should be attached in 
pairs to each blow-off pipe. The valve next to the boiler 
should be a gate valve. The valve connecting the branch 
to the main blow-off line should be a regular boiler blow- 
off valve. A short drain pipe should be placed in the con- 
nection between these two valves. 

Blow-off headers should be laid in concrete trenches, 
with ^^Y" connections to the branches. Steel pipe should 
be used. This should be free to expand, preventing exces- 
sive strain when it becomes heated. Blow-off headers 
should discharge into a hot well. This wefi should be pro- 
vided with a pipe at least 10 feet high for the escape of 
vapor. No reducers should be allowed in the blow-off 
line. 

Blow-off connections should be frequently and care- 
fully inspected for leaks. If a leak is discovered, it should 
be remedied at once. 

Blowing Down Boilers. — Attendants should blow down 



BOILERS 75 

each boiler two or three inches at least twice a day, pref- 
erably when coming on duty in the morning and again 
before starting up in the afternoon. If blown down at 
these stated times, the sediment and scale forming mate- 
rial will have had time to settle on the bottom. It may 
then be easily blown out before having a chance to harden 
on the plates. Before blowing down, the gauge cocks should 
be tested, and the water level observed in the glass tube. 
Care should be taken not to blow down the boiler too long, 
causing the water to descend below the safe level. For this 
reason, an assistant should observe the w^ater gauge when 
the boiler is being blown down. The blow-off valve should 
be opened slowly to avoid waterhammer. 

Surface Blow-off. — The surface blow-off should be 
used several times a day to remove accumulations which 
collect on the surface of the water in the boiler, thus pre- 
venting this material from finally settling and forming 
scale on the plates. 

Waterhammer. — Waterhammer is caused by the ham- 
mering of a body of water against a pipe or fitting. This 
may be violent enough to cause disruption. The rapid 
movement of the body of water is occasioned by the con- 
densation of steam, causing a partial vacuum, with the 
consequent phenomenon of waterhammer. Condensation 
of steam will always take place if a comparatively cold 
surface of the w^ater is exposed to it. Waterhammer is 
one of the direct causes of explosions, and is attributed to 
the following causes: 

1. Introducing water, or the condensation of steam, in steam pipes. 

2. Inadequate draining of steam pipes. 

3. Admission of steam to pipes containing water. 

4. Introducing .steam under a column of water. 

o. Presence of steam and water on both sides of a valve, i.e., opening a valve 
with unec}ual steam pressure on each side, and water on at least one side. 

G. Sudden arrest of a moving plug of water, i.e., vacuum on one side, or 
steam or air in front of the advancing plug — the steam or air escaping through 
a small orifice, whereas, the water plug is suddenly checked. 

7. Danmiing up of water in unused jKjrtions of long and complicated pipe- 
lines. 



76 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Explosions of Steam Pipes. — The causes of explosions of 
steam pipes are due to the following: 

1 . Waterhammer . 

2. Vibration — too great rigidity of the steam pipes. 

3. No provision for expansion and contraction of steam pipes. 

4. Lack of support of steam pipes. 

5. Defective steam pipe joints. 

6. Lack of ductility in steam pipes. 

Explosions of Boilers. — Explosions of boilers can only 
be guarded against by frequent and expert inspection, 
proper installation, and careful operation by experienced 
attendants. 

Boiler explosions are chiefly due to the following causes: 

1. Defective material. 

2. Weakness. 

3. Abnormal steam pressure. 

4. Defective design. 

5. Corrosion (internal and external). 

6. Faulty construction. 

7. Overheating. 

8. Faulty repairs. 

9. Scale formation. 

10. Waterhammer. 

11. Defective joints. 

12. Failure of safety devices to act properly. 

13. Careless and improper operation. 

14. Rendering safety devices inoperative. 

15. Lack of safety appliances or accessories. 

16. Lack of frequent and expert inspection. 

Impurities in Feed Water. — Practically all waters, 
available for boiler feed, contain impurities. The effects 
of these impurities vary considerably, but they are all 
injurious. Impurities cause either corrosion or incrusta- 
tion, or both. The impurities may be either held in sus- 
pension or in solution. They may be subjected to both 
chemical and mechanical action. 

The common impurities encountered are: Calcium Car- 
bonate, CaCOs; Magnesium Carbonate, MgCOa; Calcium 
Sulphate, CaS04; and Magnesium Sulphate, ]\IgS04. Im- 
purities which are less frequently found in smaller quanti- 



BOILERS 77 

ties are: Calcium Chloride, CaCL; Magnesium Chlo- 
ride, AlgClo; Sodium Chloride, XaCl; Potassium Chloride, 
KCl; Iron Carbonate, FeCOs; and small amounts of Cal- 
cium Phosphate, silica, iron oxides, and organic matter. 

Corrosion. — Corrosion, the most frequent cause of 
boiler explosions, may be either internal or external. In- 
ternal corrosion is due to acids and air contained in the 
feed water. Pure water, free from air and acids, has little 
or no effect on wrought iron or steel, and only a superficial 
effect on cast iron. Acids find their way into the boiler 
by a contaminated supply of water, or by the entrance of 
adulterated C3dinder oil. Waters may contain decaying 
vegetable matter, certain salts, chemicals, sulphuric acid 
from mine waters or ore containing sulphur, mud in sus- 
pension, and oils which attack the iron. Carbonic acid is 
alwa3^s contained in feed water. The chemical action, 
which it sets up, liberates more acid, resulting in an ac- 
cumulative effect. Ordinary scale forming material, — lime 
carbonate and lime sulphate, — has little direct corrosive 
action, unless the scale becomes too thick. A slight coat- 
ing of these salts acts as a protection against corrosion. 
The chlorides of lime, sodium, and magnesium, however, 
aid corrosion. 

Galvanic action may also take place, if copper or some 
other metal is present, resulting in corrosion. Galvanic 
action may also be caused by the lack of homogeneit}^ in 
the metal of a boiler, the action taking place between the 
particles of metal of different potential, thereby producing 
an infinite number of galvanic cells. Carbon, copper, and 
brass are all electro-positive to iron and, when in contact 
with it, cause disintegration. Zinc, tin, and lead are elec- 
tro-negative to iron and, when in contact with it, tend to 
preserve it. Galvanic action may thus be stopped by 
placing pieces of zinc in various parts of the boiler. 

Oxygen is essential to corrosion. In combination with 
any acid in the water, or carbonic acid in the air, it causes 
a process of rusting which yields more carbonic acid, thus 



78 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

accelerating disintegration. This action produces patches 
below, or just above, the water line, which is called ''pit- 
ting." Poor circulation of water increases the action. 
This takes place most rapidly where the water is least 
active, or where strains loosen the rust, exposing more 
metal to the air. Air bubbles, which are given up when 
the water comes in contact with the hot plates, if the cir- 
culation be poor, may remain in contact with the plate 
where they cannot rise after once being formed. If the 
air is not allowed to escape, they may also collect between 
the water and the steam. Pitting may be prevented by 
entirely expelling the air before the water enters the boiler, 
using distilled or condensed feed water containing little or 
no air, and a feed pump which introduces no air into the 
boiler. 

Animal and vegetable oils are composed of fats which 
break up into acids and bases, leaving the acids free to 
attack the iron. Mineral oils, on the other hand, will 
not corrode iron. 

The internal surface of a boiler should be smooth and 
even, and free from scratches. If scratches or indenta- 
tions are present, they form points which become the 
center of corrosion and pitting. 

Grooving is usually due to the springing or buckling 
of the plate, which, in turn, is caused by insufficient stay- 
ing or defective fastenings. This causes the plate to bend 
back and forth with increase or decrease of pressure. 
Strains and weakness are thus produced. Minute cracks 
are often thus formed which are difficult to detect. These 
places are favorable to corrosion, which forms grooves in 
the metal. This bending effect may also loosen scale at 
these points, which would otherwise serve as a protection, 
if not too thick, exposing this part of the boiler to cor- 
rosive action. Too great rigidity is another cause of groov- 
ing which must be guarded against. 

It is advisable to have an analysis made of the feed 
water before using it for the boiler. Analyses should be 



BOILERS 79 

made from time to time, if the water is known to contain 
impurities. River waters change in comi)osition at dif- 
ferent periods, especially in times of drought. An analysis 
will determine the prescription to be applied to the water 
in any particular instance. 

General corrosion acts over large surfaces and is diffi- 
cult to detect. In this case the material wastes away 
evenly, causing a thinning of the plates. Where boilers 
have been in use for some time, it is advisable to test the 
thickness of the plates by drilling. If the plates have been 
thinned by general corrosion, the w^orking pressure should 
be reduced. 

Boilers in operation will not corrode externally to any 
extent, if the free air and fumes are entirely dr}^ Leaks 
from seams, joints, and patches will result in quite rapid 
corrosion, due to moisture with free air and acid fumes. 
In this case, the plates will be eaten away very quickly. 
Corrosion from leakage may be hidden by scale, being 
only detected b}^ a thorough examination. Longitudinal 
joints should be kept free from the brickwork, and the 
blow-off pipe protected from contact with the brickwork. 
Damp brickwork causes rapid corrosion to take place. All 
brickwork in contact with the boiler should be of fire-clay 
brick. Common brick should never be in contact with 
the metal, as water may percolate through it, damaging 
the boiler. Drippings on a boiler, if laden with sulphur 
fumes, will quickly attack the iron. 

Fire tubes are subject to rapid corrosion, if the coal 
or coke contains much sulphur. Ashes and cinders are 
carried through the tubes at a high velocity when the 
draught is forced by a blower. This will cause erosion of 
the tubes. When tubes are inspected, they should be 
probed to detect pitting or wasting. The tubes should 
be regularly drawn and subjected to a hydraulic test. 

Fires should never be damped with moist ashes, as the 
sulphur which they contain will form sulphuric acid, which 
will attack the iron. 



80 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Scale Incrustation. — In the course of time a deposit 
or incrustation of scale will be formed on the plates within 
the boiler and within the tubes. This scale is an ex- 
tremely poor conductor of heat. It prevents a large 
amount of useful heat from being transmitted to the 
water within the boiler. The scale withholds the heat, 
causing over-heating or burning of the plates or tubes. 
This weakens them, causing them to bag, rupture, or 
crack. Tubes will also become loose at the joints, result- 
ing in leaks. 

It is important to prevent the formation of scale by 
taking the necessary precautions. Scale formation is one of 
the principal causes of boiler explosions. It also greatly 
reduces the power and efficiency of a boiler. Scale 5V" 
thick requires an additional 5% fuel; scale iV" thick, 15%; 
scale I" thick, 30%; scale I" thick, 6S%; and scale |" 
thick, 150%.. 

Chemicals should be introduced into the boiler to soften 
the scale, so that it may be removed in washing; other- 
wise, if this does not suffice, the scale should be removed 
by mechanical means. Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), in the 
proportion of 1 pound to 60 gallons of water, is most 
commonly used, about 40 pounds being required per 100 
B.H.P. This solution should be allowed to remain in the 
boiler, over a low fire, for at least two days. The boiler 
should then be cooled and blown down. The interior should 
then be cleaned and scraped of all scale. If the scale is 
not immediately removed after the boiler is emptied of 
water, it will again harden on exposure to air. 

Sodium hydroxide is dangerous if not properly handled. 
It should never be allowed to come in contact with the 
hands, eyes, or other parts of the body. It is a very strong 
caustic and will cause serious burns. A bottle, containing 
a solution of sodium bicarbonate, should be kept on hand 
in the boiler room for an emergency. If sodium hydroxide 
should accidentally come in contact with the eyes or hands, 
the solution of sodium bicarbonate should be immediately 



B()ili:hs 81 

ai)pli(Hl. This solution will counteract the injurious effects 
of sodium hydi'oxide. 

Tannic and acetic acids break up the carbonates wliich 
form scale, but have no effect on the suli)hat(^s. These 
acids also attack iron. Therefore^ it is best not to use 
them, but resort to the j^roper chipping and scaling tools. 
Crude petroleum should not be used, as it may contain 
sulphuric acid, which attacks iron. 

The tubes of wat(M"-tube boilers are especially suscep- 
tible to the formation of scale. They re(iuire special 
attention. The blow-off i)ipes, water column connections, 
and feed i)ii)es should be kept free from scale. They 
should be frequent I3' examined to see that the aperture is 
not being closed or clogged by incrustation. Organic 
matter may often be removed by using the surface blow- 
off several times a day. 

Refined kerosene oil softens scale, having no injurious 
effects if free from acids. The boiler should be filled wdth 
water, and 2 gallons of kerosene poured in. The oil wdll 
remain on top. The water should then be gradually drawn 
oft". The kerosene will thus be si)read over the sides, 
attacking the scale. The boiler should be thoroughly 
ventilated after kerosene has been used, to remove all 
kerosene vai)or. 

The prevention of scale requires a knowledge of the 
chemistry of the feed water. Analyses should be made 
l)eri()dically, and the proper treatment applied. Many 
scale-forming imi)urities may thus be removed l)efore they 
enter the boiler, or they may be precipitated and removed, 
before they have a chance to cement on the plates and 
tubes, by periodically blowing off the boiler. 

Pre})ared boiler comiiounds, which are offered for sale, 
should not be used unless it is positively known of what 
th(\v consist, and whether they are applicable to the feed 
water in (juestion. 

Carbonates. — Feed water containing calcium and mag- 
nesium carbonates deposits the oxides of calcium and 



82 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

magnesium when the carbonic acid is driven off by boil- 
ing. If the feed water is previously heated to a tempera- 
ture of 212° F., remaining at that temperature some time 
for the carbonates to settle before it enters the boiler, 
the carbonates will be mostly deposited in the feed water 
heater. Calcium and magnesium carbonates are soluble 
in water containing some carbonic acid, but when heated, 
the carbonates return to the insoluble form and are then 
deposited. These carbonates form a porous deposit, which 
does not alone readily adhere to the metal, but often 
some other substance is present, which mixes with the 
deposit, forming a hard scale. Magnesium hydrate may 
form from the carbonate, however, and cement it to 
form scale. Carbonate scales are not usually hard to 
remove. 

Sulphates. — Calcium and magnesium sulphates are 
dangerous, forming an extremely hard scale which is very 
difficult to remove. These sulphates are deposited at a 
temperature of about 300 degrees F. Since they remain 
soluble up to about 300 degrees F., they are not so easily 
removed, as are the carbonates, before the feed water 
enters the boiler. These sulphates also act as a cement 
for mud and other material. 

These substances may be removed in an open feed 
water heater by the addition of certain chemical com- 
pounds. The common substance used is sodium carbon- 
ate (soda ash, black ash, or sal-soda). Above 200 degrees 
F. this substance reacts chemically with the sulphates 
(including sodium sulphate) to form the carbonates of 
calcium and magnesium. These carbonates are then de- 
posited at this temperature before the water enters the 
boiler, except the sodium carbonate, which is soluble, 
passing into the boiler where it remains until the solution 
is saturated, when it is then precipitated. Before it can 
be deposited, however, it passes off through the blow-off. 

Inasmuch as the sodium carbonate passes off to some 
extent through the blow-off, it becomes necessary to intro- 



BOILERS 83 

duce it frequently in small quantities into the boiler. It 
is a mistake to believe that a large charge will serve the 
purpose for a comparatively long period. The carbonate 
will soon have all passed off in the blow-off, there being 
none left to prevent scale from forming. 

Sodium carbonate also neutralizes any acids which may 
be present, preventing them from attacking the iron. 
The acidity of the water may be tested by blue litmus 
paper. If acid is present, the paper will turn a reddish 
tint. If the water contains acid, the alkali should be added 
until the paper returns to the bluish tint again. A small 
amount of caustic soda, added to the carbonate, is also 
useful. 

When filling a boiler with fresh water, it is advisable 
to add a few pounds of sodium carbonate. Afterwards, 
the addition of three or four pounds a week should be 
sufficient, but the exact amount must be determined by a 
chemical analysis of the feed water. A large quantity 
should never be used, as it is only wasteful and harmful. 
If the water contains a large amount of dissolved salts, 
the sodi.um carbonate is not effective. The impurities 
should be removed before they enter the boiler, otherwise 
the supply should be abandoned. 

Before entering the boiler, the sodium carbonate should 
first be dissolved in water. It may be introduced by means 
of a small tank connected with the suction of the feed pump. 
Care should be taken not to admit any air to the pump. 
Sodium carbonate may also be thrown into the feed water 
tank or reservoir, reaching the boiler in this way. 

Chlorides. — Magnesium chloride has cementing prop- 
erties which render it troublesome. It may react with the 
water to form magnesium hydrate and hydrochloric acid, 
which attacks the metal. The other chlorides encountered, 
namely sodium and potassium, are not especially harmful, 
unless the solution becomes saturated, after which they 
may be deposited. They may, however, cause the water 
to foam, especially if present in considera})le (luantities. 



84 PRACTICAL SAFETY ^lETHODS AND DEVICES 

Mud. — If mud is not blown off, it will collect upon 
the plates or tubes, becoming baked on the heating sur- 
face. Mud should be entirely removed by filtering, or by 
means of settling tanks, before the water is allowed to 
enter the boiler. These tanks should be cleaned at regular 
periods. 

Circulation of Water. — The free and constant circu- 
lation of water in a boiler is of the utmost importance. 
Heat is transmitted very rapidly through the tubes and 
shell of a boiler. If the circulation is poor or lacking, 
a film of steam will collect on the tubes and plates, 
causing them to burn. Steam is a very poor conductor 
of heat. For this reason, the heat cannot be transmitted 
directly to the water fast enough to avoid burning the 
metal. If the water flows freely along a boiler tube, 
it is impossible to burn the tube, even with the most 
intense heat. Good circulation will prevent air from form- 
ing on the surface of the water, which otherwise would 
cause rapid corrosion. Tubes should not be staggered 
either vertically or horizontally, as they would thus inter- 
fere with the proper circulation of the water. Boilers 
should be so designed that a free and rapid circulation 
of water will be possible. 

Foaming. — When the steam space in a boiler is par- 
tially filled with bubbles of steam, the phenomenon is 
called foaming. This may be caused by too much sodium 
carbonate, or by other substances which may be either 
dissolved or suspended in the water and which interfere 
with the free escape of the steam from the surface of the 
water. Oil, sewage, or vegetable matter may form a 
scum through which the steam bubbles find difficulty in 
breaking. Suds may be formed if an alkali is present 
which acts upon the oil to form a soap. Oil frequently 
enters the boiler from the condenser, where it finds its 
way from the cylinders of the engine or pumps. Oil 
should be prevented from returning to the boiler by means 
of effective oil separators or extractors. Large quantities 



l^OIT.ERS 85 

of salts in the water within the boiler may precipitate as 
the solution becomes satm-ated, causing foaming and 
priming. 

Cleaning. — Although every precaution be taken, it is 
practically impossible to entirely eliminate the formation 
of scale. Therefore, it becomes necessary to occasionally 
clean this incrustation from the boiler and tubes. Soot 
also collects on the outside of boilers, and on one side of 
the tubes. Water tubes are cleaned by water-turbine tube 
cleaners with rotary cutters. As the scale is cut, it is 
washed out of the tube by the water. Fire tubes are 
cleaned by compressed air power cleaners, hammering the 
inside. The vibrations dislodge the scale, and the soot is 
cleaned by rotary brushes and scrapers. Steam power 
cleaners should not be used in fire tubes, unless the tubes 
are hot, otherwise, the steam would cause the soot to 
stick. Where compressed air power cleaners are used, the 
compressed air serves to blow out the soot as it is released. 
Boiler tubes and headers should always be carefully ex- 
amined after cleaning. 

Idle Boilers. — When a boiler is to be left idle for some 
time, it should be thoroughly cleaned and dried out. Trays 
of hot charcoal should be placed in the boiler for a short 
time. Trays of unslaked lime should then be inserted. Un- 
slaked lime will absorb all of the moisture, preventing the 
boiler from rusting. The boiler should then be closed air 
tight. Care should be taken not to let the lime come in 
contact with any part of the boiler. After closing the 
boiler, it should be covered with a coat of linseed oil. The 
fittings should then be painted. A boiler should not be 
left idle, full of water, for any length of time. If the boiler 
is, however, used a part of the time, it should be kept full 
of water when not in use. In this case, it is also advisable 
to add a little burnt lime to the water. Before a boiler 
is placed in commission, after having remained idle for a 
time, it should be thoroughly cleaned, ^^^len a boiler is 
to be left idle, the furnace, combustion chamber, and tubes 



86 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

should be cleaned to remove the soot, thereby preventing 
unnecessary corrosion. If an idle boiler is not properly 
cared for, it will deteriorate much faster than a boiler in 
constant service. 

Damper Regulators. — Where damper regulators and 
non-return valves are both used, great care should be exer- 
cised in locating the steam connection of the regulator to 
the main system. If this connection is made in the main 
steam system, and a break should occur, the steam pres- 
sure will fall, closing the non-return valves and also open- 
ing the damper regulator, thus putting full draught on the 
boilers when the main valves are closed. To avoid this, 
the connection for the damper regulators should be made 
between non-return valves and the boilers. 

Guarding Stokers, and Coal and Ash Handling Machin- 
ery. — All gearing on stokers, and coal and ash handling 
machinery, should be as completely enclosed as possible 
by substantial cast iron covers, so designed as to be readily 
detachable. 

All set screws, keys and bolts in moving parts should 
be covered or countersunk. Unused portions of keyways 
should be filled. The intake of exhaust fans and blowers 
should be guarded with a substantial wire-mesh screen. 

Platforms, Stairways and Lighting. — A system of railed 
walks or runways should be erected to give convenient 
access to overhead valves, water columns, and other ac- 
cessories. Railed walks should extend from one boiler to 
another of the same battery. Railed platforms should be 
constructed for the convenient and safe operation of indi- 
vidual valves. 

Walks, stairs, ladders, and platforms should be well 
lighted and free from breaks and obstructions. They 
should be of substantial iron construction. Checkered 
steel plate or grids should be used for flooring, except in 
the vicinity of water columns, where gridiron construc- 
tion should be used in order to permit a clear view of the 
water column from the boiler room floor. Railed stair- 



BOILERS 87 

ways should be used in preference to ladders. Stairways 
should be placed at each end of overhead walks in a line 
of boilers, and, in a large plant, one or more intermediate 
stairways should be provided. 

Red incandescent lamps should be suspended over 
important cut-off valves on branches from steam mains 
or headers, to facilitate locating them in an emergency. 
A protected incandescent lamp should be suspended near 
each water column. 

Special attention should be given to securing good 
illumination throughout the boiler house. 

Numbering Boilers. — Each boiler should be provided 
with at least three number plates (each having the same 
number), as follows: One on the front of the boiler, one on 
the rear, and one on the pipe between the boiler steam 
nozzle and the header, in such a position that it can be 
readily seen from the walk or platform on top of the 
boiler setting. 

Tests and Inspections. — Boilers should be inspected 
internally at least once a year by an expert. In addi- 
tion they should receive an external inspection quarterly. 
Boilers should be tested by tapping the inside and out- 
side, noting the sound, which, in addition to a careful 
examination, will usuall}^ disclose any defects. 

WTiere any doubt exists in regard to the exact condition 
of a boiler, after having been hammer tested, it should 
be subjected to a hydrostatic test. New boilers should 
always be thus tested. Boilers should always be sub- 
jected to a hammer test, in addition to a hydrostatic 
test, as the latter test does not disclose all defects. If 
burned metal is suspected, a piece should be cut off 
with a chisel. If burned or crystallized, the metal will 
break off, otherwise it will curl up. 

All outlets and pipe connections should be carefully 
examined, as they are especially subject to corrosion. 
Seams should be inspected for cracks and grooves. If 
hidden cracks are suspected in longitudinal seams, the 



88 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



rivets should be cut away and the plates parted and ex- 
amined. Pitting is likely to occur about drum connec- 
tions. Mud drums should be thoroughly cleaned and 
inspected. Careful attention should be given to the blow- 
off nipples, valves, piping and connections. All stays 
should be taut and in good condition. Waterlegs of ver- 
tical and locomotive boilers should be frequently cleaned. 
Connections to water columns should also be kept clean. 




Fig. 13 

Metal case for hand wheel of boiler valve, with padlock and danger tags. 

Courtesy Illinois Steel Company. 



Before starting a fire, there should be a proper amount of 
water in the boiler, otherwise serious damage will result. 
Precautions Before Entering a Boiler. — All valves on 
the steam connection, blow-off pipe, and feed water pipes 
should be locked closed. (Fig. 13.) Care should be taken 
to see that there is no pressure remaining in the boiler, 
before removing manhole or handhole covers. Frequently 
there is a pressure of a few pounds remaining in the boiler 
even when the steam gauge reads zero. This would be 
sufficient to blow off the manhole cover with considerable 



BOILERS 89 

force. Opening the safety valve or water column cocks 
will relieve any pressure which may remain after the water 
has been all blown out. 

The boiler should be sufficiently cooled before entering. 
All manholes, handholes, and the damper should be 
opened, and all doors closed. This will afford a good cir- 
culation of air. If kerosene has been used in the boiler, 
or if there is a possiblity that gas or oil may be present, 
the boiler should be thoroughly ventilated before anyone 
is allowed to enter. No open lights of any kind should be 
allowed in or near the boiler until it has been thoroughly 
aired out, as an explosion might ensue. Before entering, 
a lighted candle, attached to a string on a stick, should 
be carefully lowered into the boiler, standing well away 
from the manhole. If any oil vapor, sewer gas, or other 
gas is present, it will then explode. This is an important 
precaution. It is far preferable to use a portable, electric 
hand lamp instead of any other illuminant. This should 
be covered with a wire guard, and all connections thor- 
oughly insulated. 

Before entering the combustion chamber, ashes should 
be removed. Sometimes ashes are merely wet down in- 
stead of being removed. This is a dangerous practice. A 
man might sink through a cool thick crust into red hot 
ashes. AMien thus treated, ashes retain considerable heat 
for several days. Wetting ashes also damages the settings. 

Rotary Boilers, Digesters, Rendering Tanks, Bleachers, 
and Extractors. — The stock holes and mouth pieces of 
rotaries, digesters, rendering tanks, bleachers, etc., should 
be reinforced with wrought steel rings, compensating for 
the metal cut away. Cast iron should not be used, as it 
is not dependable. 

Bisulphite digesters should receive weekly inspections. 
There is danger that openings may be formed in the lead 
lining, allowing the acid to eat its way through the shell. 
Numerous small holes should be drilled in the shell. Any 
leak in the lining may thus be quickly discovered before 



90 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

the acid weakens the shell. The shells of digesters should 
be kept at a constant temperature, to avoid contraction 
or expansion. 

When rotaries, driers, extractors, rendering tanks, 
digesters and other tanks are operated at a lower pressure 
than that of the boiler, the steam connection should be 
provided with a stop valve, reducing valve and safety 
valve. This is important, as these vessels are not usually 
constructed to withstand the full boiler pressure. The 
reducing valve should be set to reduce the steam pressure 
to that desired in the vessel. The safety valve should be 
set to blow off at the maximum pressure which the vessel 
can safely stand. The safety valve should be large enough 
to properly protect the vessel. 

The above named boilers and tanks should be frequently 
and carefully inspected, both internally and externally, for 
corrosion, cracks, leaks, and other defects. 

BOILER ROOM RULES 

1. Employees, except those whose duties require it; should be strictly for- 
bidden to go into the boiler room. 

2. When coming on, or going off duty, be sure that the valves between the 
water column and the boiler are opened. Blow down the water column, noting 
the return of the water in the glass. Test the gauge cocks until absolutely sure 
of the water level. Water gauges are not always reliable. Then inspect the 
fires. 

3. Be sure that the water level is maintained at the proper height at all 
times. If the water level does not fluctuate, it is a good indication that the gauge 
is clogged. Test the level by opening the gauge cocks, and if the level of the water 
in the boiler is not at the proper height, shut down the boiler, and repair and clean 
the water gauge. 

4. See that the boiler steam gauges and water gauges are well lighted, so 
that there will be a clear view of the gauges at all times. 

5. See that the water gauge glasses are provided with proper guards, to 
protect the eyes of anyone in case of breakage. Be sure that the guard does not 
obstruct a clear view of the water level. 

6. Keep the water gauge glass in a clean condition. 

7. Renew the glass in the water gauge, when it becomes too dirty for the 
water level to be clearly seen. Gauge glasses become chemically corroded, and 
partly eaten out in places, during a long period of service, especially if the water 
is bad, causing weakness in the glass. Gauge glasses, that have been in service 
for a consideral)le length of time, should be replaced with new ones. Many bad 
eye accidents and j-erious scalds are due to the breaking of water gauge glasses. 



BOILERS 91 

8. Always coniparo th(^ stoam fiinv^o with \hc safoty valve, whon tho boiler 
is blowing off, to make sure that thoy a{i;r('e. If lh(\v do not agree, discover tho 
reason, and make the necessary adjustments. 

9. Make occasional tests of steam gauges, to insur(> tliat th(>y are registering 
correctly. 

10. Safety valves shoukl be tested at least once a day by lifting tliem olT tho 
seat. See that the valves do not stick on their seats. 

11. When the steam gauge indicates the ma.ximum pressure allowable, be 
sure that the safety valve is freely blowing olT. 

12. Keep the safety valves well oiled. 

VS. Never allow the safety valve to bo set to blow off at a pressure over 
the maximum allowed. 

14. Never allow the safety valv(> to be })locke(l up, or otherwise made 
inoperative. 

lo. No valve of any kind should l)e allowed between tho safoty valve and 
the boiler. 

10. See that a safe access is provided to all valves. Footways should bo 
jilaced at the top of batteries, to render an easy and safe access to all appliances. 

17. In ca.se of low water, do not, under any circumstances, open the safety 
valve, or turn on the feed water. Do not touch the steam outlets. Cover the 
fire W' ith wet ashes, and close the fire and ash pit doors. Then wait until the boiler 
has been coole<l ofT, l)efore making an examination to see what damage has 
resulted. 

18. If a boiler starts to foam, close the throttle long enough to show the 
correct level of the w'ater in the glass gauge. If there is sufficient water in the 
boiler, feed it, and blow it down. If this does not suffice, check tho draught, and 
open the surface blow-oflf. If a boiler foams, there is some cause for it, which 
should be discovered and remedied. 

19. When blowing off boilers, open and close the blow-olT valves slowly. 

20. Boilers should be blown off at least twice a day, preferably when coming 
on shift in the morning, and before starting up in the afternoon. At these times, 
scale or sediment has had sufficient time to settle near the blow-off. 

21. Never allow a blow-off pipe to be placed in a passageway, driveway or 
other place, where it may cause injury to anyone. 

22. Do not allows sediment or scale to accumulate in the boiler. Never 
allow any oil or grease to enter the boiler. These substances cause overheating, 
which is often the cause of explosions. 

23. Be sure to use the proper compounds to prevent scale forming. See 
that they are used frequently in small quantities, rather than occasionally in 
large quantities. 

24. See that the blow-off pipe is protected by brickwork from the direct 
flames of the fire. 

25. Boilers should bo washed out at least once a month, and mon^ often, 
if the feed water is l)ad. 

26. If anything prevents the water from being fed to th(> boiler, the boiler 
should be immediately shut down until repairs are made. 

27. Never go into a boiler before you have closed and i)adlocketl all valves 
and sHdes. 



92 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

28. After the boiler has been drained, the blow-off valves should be locked 
closed. 

29. The automatic valves should be frequently examined, to insure their 
proper action in emergencies, such as the bursting of tubes. 

' 30. When opening up a cold line, the following precautions should be 
taken : — 

(a) Open all available drips. 

(b) Warm the line by opening the by-pass, when possible, or by opening 
the stop valve sufficiently to warm very slowly. 

(c) An inexperienced man should not be allowed to turn steam into a cold 
line, unless accompanied by the foreman. 

(d) Never open the main valve, until certain that the line is thoroughly 
heated. 

31. Be sure that the steam gauge pressures register the same, before 
attempting to connect two or more boilers. Do not attempt to connect them, 
under any circumstances, until the pressures agree. In cutting a boiler in or out 
always use the by-pass, before opening the main valves. Should the non-return 
valve fail to work, immediately notify the proper authority. 

32. Never clean or repair boilers, pumps or engines, until all valves leading 
to them are tightly closed and padlocked, with a danger tag, bearing your name, 
attached to the valve. Be sure the boiler is properly cooled before entering. 

33. Never open a valve, leading to a boiler that is being cleaned or repaii'ed, 
until you have seen that no one is inside. 

34. Take great care to see that you open the right valve on the proper pipe 
line. Failure to use great caution in this respect has been the cause of many 
serious and fatal accidents. 

35. All steam traps should be kept clean, and in working order. Traps are 
the only safe means of removing water from the line. Should a trap get out of 
order, and it be impossible to repair it at once, the by-pass should be opened 
sufficiently to pass all water that might collect. 

36. Pipes should be well drained before any joints are broken, otherwise 
persons might be scalded, as the result of some pressure remaining in the pipes. 
Always close the main valves before breaking any joints. 

37. Gut out, from the header, every boiler that is not in operation with the 
others. 

38. Make frequent inspections of all valves, gauges and other appliances, 
and keep them in good working order at all times. 

39. Report, immediately, any defects in boilers, brickwork, pipes, valves or 
other appliances. 

40. Repair all leaks in boilers, pipes, flanges or gaskets, as soon as possible. 

41. See that the boiler is kept dry on the outside, and that no cold air has 
a chance to enter through any cracks in the brickwork. 

42. Open each door to the boiler at least once a day, and inspect carefully 
for leaks at all points. Carefully examine the fire sheets for bulges, bags or 
blisters. 

43. Never attempt to calk a leaky seam in a boiler, steam pipe or valve 
casing, under pressure. The force of a hammer blow may cause disruption. 
Always use round nosed tools in calking. 



BOILERS 93 

44. Small leaks in tho boiler are indicated by small white incrustations 
on the plates near rivets. These should be plainly marked before calkinfj;, other- 
wise, these slight indications may be obscured in handling and hamnuM-ing. 

4.5. Great care should be used in the cooling and handling of flu(> dust, as 
it is likely to fly and exi)lo(le, causing bad burns. 

46. Three men should always work together when cleaning flu(> dust from 
boilers. Two men should remain on the outside, ready to lend assistance, in case 
of accident. One should constantly remain in a position to see the man working 
inside. 

47. In shutting down a boiler ])efore cleaning, it should not be blown out 
under ])ressure, or rapidly coo1(m1. The boiler and brickwork should be cooled 
before emptying the boiler. If these precautions are not taken, sediment and 
scale will be baked on the shell or tubes. Serious stresses are set up in the shell 
or tubes, where the boiler is allowed to cool rapidly, and this will cause trouble 
later on. Boilers should never be blown out, and immediately filled with cold 
water. Be sure to maintain the level of the water in tho boiler, until it has cooled 
sufficiently. 

48. Before cleaning a boiler, be sure that all valves are closed and pad- 
locked, and that the steam gauge indicates no pressure; lift the safety valve from 
its seat; then admit air at the top, open blow-off cock, and allow the water to 
run out. Wash the boiler out from the top manhole, with hose under good water 
pressure, in order to remove all loose scale ; then open the lower manhole and hand- 
holes. See that all scale is removed from every part of the boiler or tubes, and 
between the tubes. Inspect carefully for defects, especially where that part of 
the boiler is subjected to the direct heat of the flames. Carefully examine every 
part of the boiler and accessories. Repair all defects found, before putting the 
boiler into commission again. Clean out all ashes and soot on the grates, plates, 
heads, tubes and in the combustion chamber. Never neglect to clean out a boiler 
thoroughly, after it has been hammered or calked. 

49. Never entirely close the damper, when there is a fire on the grates. 
Gas may collect, and cause a serious explosion. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ENGINES 

The care and operation of engines should be entrusted 
to a competent engineer who has had considerable experi- 
ence in this line of work. He should have at least one 
assistant who is also familiar with the operation of engines 
and locations of valves and appliances. 

Guarding Engines. — All platforms, footways, and stair- 
ways about engines and pumps should be provided with 
handrailings and toeguards. Stationary iron stairways or 
ladders should lead to all emergency valves which can- 
not be reached from the floor or a platform. Properly 
railed steps should be provided where the main bearings 
cannot be readily reached from the floor. 

Cross-heads and connecting rods should be guarded 
with a substantial pipe railing, at least 3| feet in height, 
consisting of two horizontal members. This railing should 
be placed at least 15 inches from the moving parts. If 
the railing is placed within this limit, it should be filled 
in solid with wire mesh. Cranks, eccentrics, and tail rods 
should be guarded by a suitable enclosure, or properly 
railed off. Governor sheaves should be enclosed. The 
fly-balls of governors should be provided with a substan- 
tial basket guard of wire mesh. 

Fly wheels and belts of all steam engines, gas and oil 
engines, and air compressors should be enclosed to a height 
of six feet, where necessary for safety, by a substantial 
fence, preferably built of pipe railing or angle iron, and 
filled in with wire mesh. If a simple pipe handrailing is 
used, it should be at least 3' 6" in height and double railed. 
(Fig. 14.) It should be placed at least 18 inches from the 



ENGINES 



95 



nearest parts of the fly wheel. If the fly wheel runs in 
a pit, the railing should, in addition, be provided with a 
toeboard to prevent anyone slipping into the pit. Where 




Fig. 14 

Properly guarded fly wheel. 

Courtesy Goulds Manufacturing Company. 

it is necessary to obtain access to the fly wheels of gas or 
oil engines in order to start them, the fence may be pro- 
vided with a hinged door. No articles or clothing should 
be left within the fence or hanging on the railing. WTiere 



96 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

it is necessary to use the space under an inclined drive 
belt, the belt should be protected underneath and on the 
sides by a substantial suspended guard. Removable guards 
of the socket type may be used for fly wheels of gas engines 
where lack of space will not permit the use of a hinged 
door, but they should be substantially braced. 

If a gas engine is equipped with a gas bag regulator, 
the bag regulator should be completely enclosed in a tight 
metal case, vented to the outside atmosphere. 

Fly Wheels. — The function of a fly wheel is to store 
up and restore periodical fluctuations of energy given to, 
or taken from, an engine or machine, thus keeping the 
velocity of rotation approximately constant. 

For any given material, the strength to resist centrif- 
ugal force depends only upon the velocity of the rim, and 
not upon its bulk or weight. 

The principal causes of rupture are due to overspeeding, 
breaking or slipping of the governor belt, defective gover- 
nor mechanism, faulty design of the fly wheel, sudden 
decrease of load, overload, insufficient strength of the 
flanges and bolts, defective material, and breaking of the 
main belt. 

The safe rim speed limit for cast iron wheels in one 
piece, assuming a breaking strength of 10,000 lbs. per sq. 
inch, is 100 feet per second. For cast steel wheels in one 
piece, assuming a strength of 60,000 lbs. per sq. inch, the 
limit of safe rim speed is 233 feet per second. These cal- 
culations are based upon a factor of safety of ten (10). 

If the wheel is made in halves or sections, the strength 
is greatly decreased. For belt wheels with flanged and 
bolted rim joints between the arms, the joints average 
only 5 the strength of the rim. This type of joint cannot 
be designed with a strength greater than J that of the 
rim. If the rim is thick enough to permit reinforcement 
by means of steel links which are shrunk on, | the strength 
of the rim may be attained. This construction cannot, 
however, be applied to belt wheels with thin rims. 



ENGINES 97 

The stress in a wheel varies as the square of the speed. 
The factor of safety on speed is the square root of the 
factor of safety on strength. A factor of safety on the 
strength of at least 9 is recommended, which is equivalent 
to a margin of safety of 3 on the speed. 

The diameter of fly w^heels for various speeds may be 
found by the formula D = V/irR, in which V is the maxi- 
mum velocity of the rim allowable, and R the number of 
revolutions per minute. 

For a given material there is a definite speed at w^hich 
disruption will occur, regardless of the amount of material 
used. 

Mr. Boehm of the Fidelity and Casualty Company 
gives the following formula — V - l.QJ S/W, in which V 
is the velocity of the rim of the wheel in feet per second 
at which disruption will occur, W the weight of a cubic 
inch of the material used, and S the tensile strength of 
1 sq. inch of the material. 

]\Ir. Boehm also recommends the following table of 
safe revolutions per minute of cast iron wheels of different 
diameters. The flange joint is taken at 0.25 of the strength 
of a wheel with no joint; the pad joint, that is, a wheel 
made in six segments, with bolted flanges or pads on the 
arm is taken at 0.50; and the link joint at 0.60 of the 
strength of a solid rim. The table is figured for a margin 
of safety on speed of approximately 3, w^hich is equivalent 
to a margin of stress developed, or factor of safety in the 
usual sense, of 9: 



98 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Table of Safe Revolutions per Minute for Cast Iron Wheels 



Diana, in feet 


No joint 


Flange joint 


Pad joint 


1 

Link joint 




R.P.M. 


R.P.M. 


R.P.M. 


R.P.M. 


1 


1910 


955 


1350 


1480 


2 


955 


478 


675 


740 


3 


637 


318 


450 


495 


4 


478 


239 


338 


370 


5 


382 


191 


270 


296 


6 


318 


159 


225 


247 


7 


273 


136 


193 


212 


8 


239 


119 


169 


185 


9 


212 


106 


150 


164 


10 


191 


96 


135 


148 


11 


174 


87 


123 


135 


12 


159 


80 


113 


124 


13 


147 


73 


104 


114 


14 


136 


68 


96 


106 


15 


128 


64 


90 


99 


16 


120 


60 


84 


92 


17 


112 


56 


79 


87 


18 


106 


53 


75 


82 


19 


100 


50 


71 


78 


20 


95 


48 


68 


74 


21 


91 


46 


65 


70 


22 


87 


44 


62 


67 


23 


84 


42 


59 


64 


24 


80 


40 


56 


62 


25 


76 


38 


54 


59 


26 


74 


37 


52 


57 


27 


71 


35 


50 


55 


28 


68 


34 


48 


53 


29 


66 


33 


47 


51 


30 


64 


32 


45 


49 



The stress, due to centrifugal force, in the rim of a fly 
wheel of any given material may be found by the formula 
aS = TF.y/2.66 in which W is the weight of the material 
in lbs. per cubic inch, and V is the rim speed in feet per 
second. 

Wooden rims, if properly constructed, are preferable 
to cast iron rims, and cast steel is preferable to either. 
Wire wound rims for fly wheels are used for especially 
high speeds. 



ENGINES 99 

Under no circumstances should the fly wheel be allowed 
to exceed the safe speed limit. The fly wheel should be 
large enough to eliminate wide variations in the speed due 
to great variations in the load. 

Fly wheels should be frequently and carefully inspected. 
Failure usually starts in the form of a small crack near an 
arm on the under side of the rim. These cracks gradually 
enlarge until the wheel breaks at this point. Bolts in sec- 
tional wheels should be examined to see if they are suffi- 
ciently tight. 

Governors and Safety Stops. — Engines should never 
be operated without an efficient governor. If not of the 
shaft or fly wheel type, the governor should be driven by 
at least three independent ropes. The governor sheaves 
should be keyed to the shafts, the unused portions of the 
keyway being filled in flush with the surface of the shaft. 
Each engine should be equipped with an independent, 
automatic, speed limit engine stop. Those that are not 
thus equipped, should be provided with an approved safety 
device which will automatically shut off the power, if the 
governor should, for any reason, fail to act when the load 
is removed. 

Devices are used which are designed to shut off the 
steam supply in case the governor belt should break or 
slip. The governor should never be supported by a fixed 
pin when the engine is in operation. To guard against the 
danger of the engineer forgetting to remove the pin sup- 
porting the governor, before the engine is started, an 
automatic pin support should be used. This should be so 
designed that, when the engine is started and the speed 
increased, the pin support will be automatically remo\'ed, 
thus leaving a clear path for the governor collar to descend 
when the load on the engine is decreased. 

Independent, Automatic, Speed Limit Stops. — It is 
important that engines be equipped with independent 
safety stops and speed limit devices with push buttons 
located conveniently in each workroom to guard against 



100 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

possible fly wheel wrecks, and to allow the machinery 
to be quickly stopped in case of emergency. Electrical 
connection should be made to push buttons. The closing 
force which actuates the mechanism should be obtained 
by means of gravity. The device should be designed to 
effectively prevent the engine from overspeeding from any 
cause whatever. It should be impossible to reset the de- 
vice without previously turning down the hand wheel, thus 
eliminating the danger of suddenly throwing a full head 
of steam on the engine. A low speed detector should be 
provided, which will give positive warning in case of fail- 
ure of the driving connection between the engine and the 
speed limit. The speed limit device should be driven 
from the engine shaft at a speed several times that of 
the engine, thus making it far more sensitive than the 
governor. These devices may also be used on various 
types of steam turbines, oil and gas engines, and water 
turbines. 

Conspicuous '^engine stop" plates or placards should 
be located at each push button. There should be clear 
access to push buttons at all times. 

Daily tests and inspections of all the above mentioned 
safety devices and governor mechanism should be made. 
Data regarding all tests and inspections should be recorded 
on forms provided for the purpose. An accurate record 
should be kept on file. 

Receivers. — Receivers should be equipped with a 
relief valve of ample capacity which should be set to blow 
off well wdthin the safe working pressure of the receiver 
and the low pressure cylinder. These valves should be 
frequently tested. The steam connection to the receiver 
should be provided with a reducing valve to lower the 
pressure of the receiver. Provision should be made to 
relieve condensation. 

Automatic Vacuum Breakers. — WTiere engines are run 
condensing, they should be equipped with an automatic 
vacuum breaker in addition to the engine stop. This may 



ENGINES 101 

be operated electrically in connection with the engine 
stop, instantly destroying the vacuum when the stop is 
tripped. Where several engines are connected to one 
condenser, a valve by-pass should be provided, which will 
exhaust the pressure between the valve and the engine 
into the condenser, thereby protecting the operation of 
the other engines. The vacuum is often sufficient to speed 
up an engine under no load to a point where the fly wheel 
disrupts from centrifugal force, even when the steam supply 
is entirely shut off. For this reason, it is necessary to have 
an automatic device to break the vacuum. 

Automatic Circuit Breakers. — When tw^o or more di- 
rect connected units are operating in multiple, and one of 
them is to be shut down, it is desirable to have a circuit 
breaker connected to the generator in order to break the 
circuit at the same time that steam is shut off from the 
engine. The function of the circuit breaker is to prevent 
the generator from running away with the engine when 
the supply of steam is cut off. 

Steam Separators. — Steam separators should be used 
in order that the engine may receive dry steam. They 
should be placed in the supply pipe as near the throttle 
as possible. A separator is also of value in maintaining 
an even flow of steam and of eliminating steam vibrations 
from the pipes. It is also a safeguard for catching bolts, 
nuts, or other material which might be carelessly left in 
the steam pipes w^hen erecting new work. Otherwise, 
these articles might be forced into the cylinder, resulting 
in the blowing out of a cylinder head. Care should be 
taken to see that the automatic drain trap is always in 
working order. All separators should be equipped with 
glass gauges and covered with heat insulating material. 

Air Compressors and Receivers. — Compressors should 
be equipped with a speed limit governor to prevent the 
engine from overspeeding in case an explosion or break in 
the air receiver or pipe line causes a sudden lowering of 
pressure. 



102 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Great care should be taken in the use of lubricants for 
the cylinders of air compressors. The oil should have as 
high a flash point as possible, consistent with proper lubri- 
cating qualities. Only pure mineral oil should be used 
in as small amounts as is absolutely necessary. Pure 
mineral oil will tend to prevent the accumulation of car- 
bon which interferes with the operation of the valves. 

Kerosene oil should never be thrown into the inlet of 
an air compressor in an attempt to clean the cylinders, as 
an explosion might result. 

Air receivers should be equipped with a pressure gauge, 
drains, and a safety valve. Air receivers, including the 
gauges, drains, and valves, should be frequently inspected 
and tested. Numerous explosions result from a failure to 
make frequent examinations of the receiver and its acces- 
sories. The air pipe line should be properly drained. The 
intake pipe to the compressor should be screened. 

Lubrication. — Wherever possible, engines and machin- 
ery should be equipped with automatic lubricating devices 
to eliminate the necessity of hand oiling while the machin- 
ery is running. This does away, to a great extent, with 
the danger of attendants being caught or struck by mov- 
ing parts. 

It is of great importance that the correct kind of a 
lubricant be chosen for the particular use to which it is 
adapted. The flash point should be as high as is consis- 
tent with the requirements. 

Piping. — Systems of steam piping should be laid out 
with great care. Proper provision should be made for expan- 
sion and contraction. This may be accomplished by the use 
of loops or bends, and, if necessary, by expansion joints. The 
pipe system should be anchored at certain points in such 
a way that the pipe will be absolutely fixed at these places. 
Great care should be taken to see that expansion does 
not throw any undue strain on any part of the pipe sys- 
tem, nor on the steam chests of engine cylinders. 



EXGIXES 103 

Copper and cast iron should not ordinarily be used for 
steam pipes, as they are unreliable for high pressures. 
Copper is so affected by heat and steam that its tensile 
strength is greatly reduced. Steam pipes should be con- 
structed of wrought iron or steel. The limit of elasticity 
in cast iron pipe is reached at a steam pressure of from 
140 to 175 pounds. Under such conditions the metal is 
unduly strained. Cracks are then formed, which will 
sooner or later result in the bursting of the pipe. 

Fittings of cast steel or malleable iron should be used 
in place of cast iron. So far as possible, fittings should 
be displaced by the use of nozzles. This is accomplished 
by welding one section of wrought steel pipe to another. 
This makes the line tighter and stronger, eliminating many 
joints. The old fashioned screw joint is unsuitable for 
high pressures and superheated pipe lines. 

Flanges should receive a fine tool finish, resulting in a 
perfectly smooth face. Corrugations on the face are un- 
necessary if proper gaskets are used. Corrugated steel or 
monel metal gaskets should be used except in special cases. 
Copper gaskets are undesirable on superheated steam lines, 
as the copper is acted upon by the steam. 

Bends of long radius should be used in preference to 
those of short radius. Wliere possible, right angle con- 
nections should be avoided. 

Gate valves are preferable to globe valves in most 
cases. Gate valves on high pressure lines should be 
equipped with a by-pass. This should be used to equalize 
the pressure on each side of the valve, before the valve 
itself is opened. This allows the cold section to be thor- 
oughly warmed before full pressure is turned on. It also 
prevents waterhammer. Globe valves should not be used on 
indicator pipes. For water pipes, a gate valve or stop-cock 
should be used to obtain a clear passage. Valves should 
be so placed as to prevent the formation of a water pocket. 

Pipes should pitch in the direction of the flow of steam. 
Drip pipes should be placed wherever water pockets are 



104 PRACTICAL SAFETY ^lETHODS AND DEVICES 

likely to form. They should be kept well drained. Where 
there is a possibility of stoppage or flooding, drips should 
not be connected to drains. Engine drips, throttle drains, 
and separator drains should not be connected. All drips 
should preferably run independently to a separate trap or 
outlet. 

Traps should always be used in place of valves to drain 
headers and other important connections, such as drop- 
legs, separators, and receivers. Traps should be so located 
that their operation can be seen at all times. Drop-legs, 
receivers, and separators should each be equipped with 
gauge glasses. Steam traps should be frequently examined 
to insure safe removal of water from the line. Where 
there is a rise in the main, a drip pipe should be located 
at the lowest point just below the rise. Mains and impor- 
tant branches should terminate in a drop-leg, which should 
be tapped for a drain. 

WTiere engines are run condensing, the connection to 
the condenser and exhaust pipe should be so placed that 
water cannot possibly be drawn into the cylinder. A relief 
valve should be placed in each end of the cylinder. These 
valves should be frequently tested. Jet condensers should 
be equipped with a float operated vacuum breaker, which 
will open when the water in the condenser rises to a cer- 
tain level, thus preventing water from entering the cylinder. 
An automatic relief valve should be placed in the exhaust 
pipe. Provision should be made for draining the exhaust 
pipe. All exhaust pipes within 10 feet of the ground 
should lead to exhaust pits, provided with metal covers, 
thus preventing the steam from burning a passerby. 

Steam pipes should be frequently blown out to clear 
them of accumulations. They should be neatl}^ covered 
with heat-insulating material to prevent condensation so 
far as possible. Ample provision should be made for con- 
traction and expansion throughout the line. 

In a large plant, where there are many pipe lines carry- 
ing different fluids, it is advisable, in order to avoid con- 



ENGINES 105 

fusion, to paint each line a different color. This will tend 
to prevent mistakes in opening the wrong valve or break- 
ing the wrong line. Colored pipe line charts should be 
kept at convenient places. Pipe-men and assistants should 
refer to them until thoroughly familiar with all the lines. 
Engine Rooms. — Corrugated rubber, cocoa-matting, or 
some other material which will prevent slipping, should be 
placed on the floor near machines. The sockets of tool 
racks should be painted a bright color to emphasize the 
absence of any tool which may become carelessly mis- 
placed. Floors should be kept free from oil and other 
accumulations. Engines and other machinery should be 
kept well lubricated and scrupulously clean. The engine 
room should present a neat and tidy appearance. 

ENGINE ROOM RULES 

1. Employees should be strictly forbidden to enter the engine room, except 
for a special mission, and then should remain only as long as necessary. 

2. The engineer should be forbidden to leave the engine room, until some 
other attendant, who is thoroughly familiar with the engines, valves and signals, 
is summoned to take charge. 

3. No person, other than those responsible for the operation of the en- 
gines, should be allowed to touch any valve or other part of the mechanism, or 
approach any moving part. 

4. No one, except the attendants, should be permitted to go inside the rail- 
ings, or upon footways, when the machinery is in motion. 

5. The safe speed for each fly wheel should be known, and in no case should 
this speed be exceeded. Fly wheel revolutions should be recorded every day, in 
order to make sure that the engine is not running over the speed limit. 

6. All parts of engines and accessories should be frequently and thoroughly 
inspected, and daily tests should be made of the governor mechanism and auto- 
matic engine stops. 

7. Before going into an engine or pump, be sure that the fly wheel and cross- 
head are blocked, so that a leak of steam cannot start the engine. 

8. Be sure to place danger tags and locks on valves, before going into an 
engine or pump, or to work on machinery, and notify the engineer or operator. 

9. Under no circumstances, should engines be started until they are thor- 
oughly heated by alternately blowing live steam through each end of the cylin- 
ders, and the steam pipe and cylinders thoroughly drained of all water. Th(^ drips 
should be left open, until the load is put on, and then closed. Be sure to warm up 
the engine at both ends. 

10. In shutting down, the drip valves .should be left closed, until the engine 
is stopped. If the tlirottle is equipped with a bj^-pass valve, the throttle should 



106 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

be closed, and the engine stopped with the by-pass. This gradually stops the 
engine, avoids the pumping effect of the piston, and prevents water being drawn 
into the cylinder and trapped, when compression occurs. 

11. Never attempt to " bar" a fly wheel around off center, nor pull it off 
center by grasping the belt, when the steam pressure is on. 

12. Never start to take a piston out of a cylinder, without making sure that 
the throttle and exhaust valves are both shut tight, and locked, and the drains 
wide open; nor without trying the indicator cocks to see whether there is any 
pressure on. 

13. Never stop the air pump before stopping the engine (condensing), 
as the condenser and exhaust pipe may be flooded, and overflow into the cylinder. 

14. All steam traps should be kept clean, and in working order. Should a 
trap get out of order, and it be impossible to repair it at once, the by-pass should 
be opened sufficiently to pass off all water which might collect. 

15. Leaks in pipes, flanges or gaskets should be repaired at the earliest 
possible time. 

16. In opening up a cold line, all available drips should be opened. The line 
should be warmed by opening the by-pass, where possible, or by opening the stop 
valve sufficiently to warm very slowly. Never open the main valves, until 
certain that the line is thoroughly heated. An inexperienced attendant should 
not be allowed to turn steam into a cold line, until properly instructed. 

17. Automatic valves should be frequently examined, to insure their proper 
action in emergencies. 

18. Under no circumstances, should vacuum-breakers, governors, engine 
stops or other safety devices be blocked, or otherwise made ineffective. If such 
apparatus gets out of order, it should be reported at once. 

19. Do not stand in front of cylinder heads of engines. 

20. Do not place any material, tools, etc., on platforms or stairs around 
engines. They might fall off, and injure someone below. 

21. Never work in a gas engine room alone; always have a helper with you. 

22. If you find a man overcome with gas, get him into the open air at once. 
Notify the foreman. 

23. Smoking and open lights should be forbidden around gas machinery and 
gas pipes; otherwise, an explosion might result. 



CHAPTER IX 

ELEVATORS 

Unless properly installed and equipped, safeguarded, 
maintained in excellent condition, frequently inspected and 
carefully operated, an elevator remains one of the most 
dangerous of machines. Insufficient attention is usually 
given to these important features. As a result, accidents 
from this source are very frequent. When an accident 
occurs on an elevator, it is usually of a serious or fatal 
nature. Employees and others, whose duties require them 
to ride on elevators, naturally assume that all necessary 
precautions have been taken by those in authority to 
insure their safety. Unfortunately, however, in many 
instances, no such precautions are taken. Thus human 
lives become needlessly jeopardized by lax methods of 
supervision and maintenance. 

Shafts. — Both passenger and freight elevator shafts 
should be solidly enclosed from top to bottom with fire- 
proof material. Such construction offers more stability 
to the guide rails from side thrusts and stresses caused 
by the car. It also allows the use of continuous guide 
rails which would otherwise be cut at each floor. The 
necessity of using automatic hatch doors is eliminated; 
loose articles are prevented from accidentally falling into 
the shaftway; and persons are also prevented from being 
injured by contact with the car or the counterweight. 
The interior of the wall of the shaftway, which is used 
for entrance, should be smooth and even over its entire 
surface, offering no projections or depressions by which 
a person might be injured. All depressions in this wall 
should l)c filled in flush with the interior surface. All 



108 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

projections, such as bolts and timbers, should be cut off 
flush or beveled. 

If windows are placed in the walls of the shaft, they 
should invariably be constructed of wire glass set in 
metal frames. Skylights, if used, should also be of this 
construction. 

No wiring, piping or shafting, other than that used in 
connection with the elevator, should be allowed inside the 
shaftway. In the case of enclosed, fireproof, freight ele- 
vator shaftways, automatic fireproof doors should be 
provided at all entrances. These should be held open by 
means of fusible chain links, the doors closing automati- 
cally in case of fire. 

A large proportion of freight elevators have not, how- 
ever, been installed in enclosed fireproof shaftways. On 
the contrary, shaftways are frequently of open construc- 
tion, with no protection other than automatic hatch doors 
at each floor. These offer practically no protection to a 
person from injury, merely serving to check the draught in 
case of fire. If gates are not provided, employees are not 
infrequently found using automatic hatch doors, when 
shut, as a passageway from one part of the floor to another. 
Where the shaft is not enclosed on the unused sides, an em- 
ployee may also be injured by leaning upon or over these 
doors when opening. 

In order to insure safety, the unused sides of open shaft- 
ways should be enclosed at each floor, including the base- 
ment, with substantial wire mesh, extending the entire 
distance between the floor and the ceiling; also, from the 
head clearance (approximately 7 or 8 feet from the floor) 
to the ceiling on entrance sides. For this purpose, wire 
mesh has the advantage of admitting useful light. The 
operator is also enabled to see trucks or persons approach- 
ing. He can accordingly regulate the movements of the 
car. The open spaces between the wires should not exceed 
2" in size, being small enough to prevent a hand being 
thrust through. 



ELEVATORS 109 

Safety treads should be used at all landings for pas- 
senger elevators. The floors at landings may be made of 
material which will prevent slipping; or, rubber mats in 
one piece may be used. Mats should not be allowed to 
become worn or frayed, otherwise they might cause per- 
sons to trip. Wooden floors at landings should be free 
from holes, splinters, unevenness, and loose boards. They 
should never be allowed to become slippery. 

Where possible, windows of wire glass should be built 
in one wall of the shaft to permit daylight to enter. The 
entrance to the shaftway at each landing should be well 
lighted at all times when the elevators are in operation. 

Clearances. — Sufficient clearance betw^een the top of 
the car and the overhead rigging, and between the bottom 
of the car and the base of the shaft, should be provided 
to allow for the possible overrun of the car beyond its 
normal limits of travel. There should be a clearance of 
at least 4 ft. at the top, and 3 ft. at the bottom. These 
clearances will lessen the danger of a repairman or an 
inspector being crushed at these places. If the speed of 
the car exceeds 100 ft. per minute, additional clearance 
should be provided. It is advisable to increase the clear- 
ance one foot for each 100 ft. per minute of speed. The 
use of car bumpers of sufficient height, at the bottom of 
the shaft, affords additional protection. These bumpers 
positively prevent the car from descending beyond the 
safe limit. 

Beveled Beams and Plates. — All floor beams, timbers, 
brick arches, and other projections in the entrance wall of 
the shaft, should be equipped with beveled plates consist- 
ing of smooth sheet iron, as shown in Fig. 15. It is also 
advisable to place a beveled plate beneath the car at the 
front edge of the platform. Gates may become out of 
order, or carelessly left open, allowing a person to approach 
the edge of the shaftw^ay before the car arrives at the 
landing. In this way, a foot, or some other part of a per- 
son, might be caught and crushed by the shearing action 



no 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



of the descending car and the floor. If a beveled plate is 
used, however, this danger is greatly diminished. Acci- 
dents caused by the shearing action of the ascending car 
and a floor beam, or a brick arch, are very frequent. It 
is usually the foot of a person which is crushed, but his 
head or shoulder may be injured in a similar manner. 



FLOO/i OF ELEVATOR 



\ \V\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\^^^^^^^ 



\^6'- 



CHAINS 



Ct-EARAMCE FOR STAHDAHD 
SATES 




Fig. 15 
Beveled beams and plates. 

The plates should be perfectly smooth and closely 
fitted. They should be inclined at an angle of 70° from 
the horizontal. The inclination should never be less than 
65°, otherwise they are of no value. To be effective, the 
plates should be at least VI" in width. Operators and 
employees frequently become careless when on an elevator, 
allowing a foot, head or shoulder to extend beyond the 
edge of the platform as the car is ascending. If beveled 



ELEVATORS 



111 



plates are not used, a serious accident will result. Where 
these plates are installed, a foot, head or shoulder would 
be automatically pushed back within the confines of the 
car, thus preventing a bad injury. In any case, the re- 
moval of a person's foot, head or shoulder from the danger 




Fig. 16 

Platform under sheaves and speed governor, 

zone will be greatly facilitated. The importance of pro- 
viding adequate beveled plates for floor beams, arches, and 
other projections in the shaftway, cannot be too strongly 
emphasized. 

Platform Under Head Sheaves.— A substantial grat- 
ing or platform should l)e placed at the top of the shaft 
directly underneath the head sheaves. (Fig. 16.) 

A platform of this character permits a safe footing for 
inspection and repair of the overhead rigging. It also 



112 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

prevents tools, broken parts, and other loose articles from 
falling down the shaftway. It should be strongly built 
and securely fastened to the supports. If an iron grating 




Fig. 17 
Interlocking devices prevent accidents of this type by 
positively locking the doors to elevator shaft until 
opened by operator after the car arrives at the 
landing. 
Courlesij Safety Appliance Company, St. Louis. 

is used, the width of the spaces between the bars should 
not exceed V. Open spaces in wire mesh should not ex- 
ceed this size. If the hoist is located at the top of the shaft, 
a solid platform should be constructed. Access to the over- 
head platform should be obtained by an entrance above 



ELEVATORS 



113 



it, eliiiiiiiating the necessity of climbing upon it from the 
top of the car. 

Doors. — Entrances in the shaftway to passenger ele- 
vators should be provided with solid sliding doors at each 




Fig. 18 
An accident of this nature cannot possibly happen 
whore elevator doors are equipped with inter- 
locking devices. 
Conrtesij Safety Appliance Companij, St. Louis. 

entrance. The doors should preferably be of metal con- 
struction. The upper panels are frequently filled in with 
wire glass. It is very important that locking devices be 
installed on all doors, preventing anyone from opening 
them from the outside. The locking mechanism should 






i 



114 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



be so arranged that only the operator on the inside of the 
car can open the doors. Keys should, of course, be pro- 
vided for unlocking the doors from the outside in an 
emergency. Interlocking devices which prevent the oper- 
ator from starting the car until the doors are closed and 
locked, and which prevent the doors from being opened un- 
til the platform of the 
car is level with the 
landing, are useful in 
preventing many acci- 
dents. 

Gates. — Sliding 
doors at shaftway en- 
trances to freight ele- 
vators, similar to those 
described for passenger 
elevators, are highly 
desirable in new instal- 
lations. This equip- 
ment, however, is rarely 
encountered in the 
average factory. 

All entrances to a 
freight elevator shaft, 
including the basement 
entrance, should be 
provided with sub- 
stantial gates 6 ft. in 
height. (Fig. 19.) Gates 
should never be less 
than 5 ft. in height. 
"VMiere there is insufficient overhead clearance for a gate 
of this height, a telescoping gate, consisting of two or 
more sections, should be used. If this is not feasible, a 
collapsible, horizontal sliding gate should be installed. 
Solid gates are undesirable; open construction should be 
employed, consisting of wire mesh or vertical wooden slats 




Fig. 19 
Semi-automatic elevator gate of sufficient 
height at entrance to freight elevator 
shaft. Gates should preferably extend 
to floor level. 



ELEVATORS 115 

or spindles. Open spaces in wire mesh should not exceed 
2" in size. Vertical slats or spindles should not be spaced 
over 2" apart. Open construction has the advantage that 
persons are visible from either side of the gate. The gates 
should extend to within at least 2" of the floor, thus mini- 
mizing the danger of heavy objects, which might be care- 
lessly dropped by employees, from roUing into the shaftway. 

Gates should be of the semi-automatic type, being opened 
by hand after the car has been stopped at a landing, and 
closing by gravity as the car leaves the landing. Gates 
should be carefully counterweighted. The counterweights 
should run in an enclosure to prevent them from falling 
into the shaftway in case they become accidentally detached. 

All gates should be provided with a locking device, 
preventing them from being opened by an^^one on the out- 
side of the shaftway. It should only be possible for the 
operator to open the gate from the inside when the car is 
at the landing. If it is possible for a person, standing on 
the outside, to unlock the gate by reaching with a hand or 
a bar, a metal guard should be placed over the latch or 
lock. AMiere locking devices on gates are not provided, 
many accidents are caused by careless employees opening 
the gates when the operator is away from the landing. 
Falls down the shaftway, and the crushing of workmen's 
bodies by the elevator, are then likely to occur. 

Pivoted arms, bars, and chains should never be used 
in lieu of gates. They offer very little protection, are sel- 
dom in place, and are entirely inadequate. Upright hinged 
doors are also unsafe. 

Semi-automatic gates are preferable to those of the 
full automatic type. Full automatic gates open whenever 
the elevator passes by. Employees may thus be injured 
while attempting to jump on or off a car as the automatic 
gates are opening. 

Gates are often installed at all entrances to shaftways 
except in the basement. It is just as important to provide 
a gate at the basement entrance as at any other. Base- 



116 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ments, as a rule, are poorly lighted. Where no gates are 
placed at basement entrances, employees are apt to use 
the bottom of the shaft for a passageway. There is then 
considerable danger that they may be crushed by a des- 
cending car. 

Where it is difficult to install a gate of sufficient height, 
warning chains, at least 4 ft. in length, should be attached 
to a beveled plate beneath the front edge of the platform 
of the car. These chains should not be spaced over 6" 
apart. There should be no broken links at the bottom 
which might catch the clothing of a person. As the car 
descends, these chains will give warning by contact with 
anyone who may be carelessly leaning over a gate. This, 
however, is a makeshift device. It is much safer to use 
telescoping or collapsible gates of sufficient height. 

Passenger Cars. — Passenger cars should be completely 
enclosed on three sides and protected with a substantial 
cover. Fireproof construction is preferable to any other. 
The sides should consist of solid panels extending upward 
to a height of 6 ft. The intervening space between the 
top of the panels and the cover should preferably be filled 
in with iron grille work. This open construction, above 
the panels, permits proper ventilation; it also aids illumi- 
nation. The cover should be constructed with a hinged 
section, which wdll release upward, forming an emergency 
exit. In case the car is enclosed with iron grille work, 
containing open spaces large enough to permit a hand or 
foot being thrust through, it should be covered with wire 
mesh. This may be set in metal frame-work and attached 
to the sides of the car. The car should be provided with 
a sliding collapsible gate on the entrance side. This should 
always be closed and latched by the operator before the 
car is started. It should not be opened until the car has 
been stopped at the landing. Passengers should be com- 
pletely confined within the car when it is in operation. 
There should be no possible chance of injury to passen- 
gers from the shearing action of the car with the shaft 



ELi:\'ATORS 



117 



structure. Cars should have only one entrance. A sep- 
arate freight compartment should never be placed above 
or below passenger cars. The interior of the car should 
be properly illuminated with electric lamps. 




Fig. 20 
Properly equipped passenger elevator sho\vinj2; correct 
location of controller and emergency switch. 
Cut also shows annunciator, and electric lamp, 
just above controller, which displays a red or a 
yellow light indicating that the door is open or 
closed respectively. 
Courtesy Safety Appliance Company, St. Louis. 



The flooring should 
will prevent slipping, 
surface over its entire 



be constructed of material which 
The floor should present a smooth 
area. Wooden flooring serves very 



118 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

well, provided it is kept in good condition. Floor guides 
for gates should be countersunk flush with the floor. There 
should be no smooth metal plates in any part of the floor. 
These might cause a person to slip. Rubber mats in one 
piece may be used for the floor covering. 

The controller should be so placed within the car that 
the operator can open the door lock without withdrawing 
his hand from the handle of the controller. If a lever is 
used, it should be arranged to swing parallel with the 
doors. It should also be adequately guarded by means of 
a metal shield. This will prevent anyone from acciden- 
tally brushing against it, thus starting the car. 

Freight Cars. — The unused sides of freight cars 
should be enclosed to a height of at least 6 ft., and pref- 
erably to the bottom level of the overhead cross beam. 
For this purpose, sheet steel or solid wooden construction 
is desirable. Wooden slats and wire mesh are also satis- 
factory. If this open construction is used, the width of 
the spaces between the slats, or between the wires, should 
not exceed 2". That part of a side, directly opposite a 
counterweight runway, should be built solid, or covered 
with close wire mesh. A space should be left open on one 
side of the car to facilitate the operation of the shifter 
cable. Proper enclosure of a freight car is not only essen- 
tial to safety, but it also saves time in handling and plac- 
ing material on the car. 

The car should be provided with a substantial cover, 
to prevent falling objects from injuring the operator or 
other employees. This should be constructed with a 
hinged section on the entrance side. This hinged section 
should be arranged to automatically release upward, in 
case it should strike a person's head or shoulder when 
leaning over a gate of insufficient height, as the car is 
descending; or, in case it should meet with any other 
obstruction. 

Cars should preferably have but one entrance, although 
many cars are in use which have two. New building con- 



ELEVATORS 



119 




A 
B 
B' 

C 

D 

E 

F 



Fig. 21 
Elevator car. 

Position of cover when raiscl 
Eevator lock for shifter rono 

tev':r.r""™'"-'"---'-ke„u„d. 

Beveled phuc on entrance side. 



120 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

struction should be so designed that there need be only 
one entrance to each car, thereby minimizing the danger 
of persons being injured. The car should be provided with 
an electric lamp, protected from breakage by a wire en- 
closure. Proper illumination of cars is important. Where 
daylight is inadequate, artificial light should always be 
used. 

The floor of freight cars should present a smooth, even 
surface, free from holes, splinters, smooth metal plates 
and protruding nails or bolts. It should not be allowed 
to become slippery or badly worn. 

. Where handcar tracks are used on a freight car, they 
should be countersunk. The top of the rails should be 
flush with the floor. Catches should be placed at both 
ends of one rail to block the wheels of the handcar, pre- 
venting it from rolling in either direction. 

Safety Devices. — All passenger elevators, which are 
suspended by cables, and new installations of freight ele- 
vators, should be provided with an effective safety device 
of the clamp type, which is operated by means of a speed 
governor. This is the only reliable safety device in use 
which will positively prevent the car from falling, in case 
the cable should break or the winding mechanism fail. 
Even then, the safety device must be properly adjusted, 
and carefully and frequently inspected, to insure its proper 
action in an emergency. The device should be designed 
to grip the guides with a gradually increasing pressure, 
avoiding a severe shock. If the car is operated at high 
speed, speed governors are also desirable on machines. 
They are also being used, to some extent, in connection 
with counterweights, operating a clamp safety device on 
the counterweight frame. Counterweight governors should 
be located directly over the counterweight runway. 

All freight cars, including hand operated cars, if not 
provided with a safety device which is operated by a speed 
governor, should be equipped with a quick operating safety 
device, actuated by a spring. This device should be oper- 



ELEVATORS 121 

ated by a breaking cable mechanism, preventing the car 
from falling in case the cables break. Where wooden rails 
are used, the device usually consists of sets of dogs or cams, 
faced with teeth, which, when operated, strongly grip the 
guides before the car has had a chance to fall more than 
a few inches. In case of steel rails, corrugated hardened 
steel rollers are commonly used, which, when the device 
is operated, are forced into a wedge-shaped recess between 
the shoes and the guide. 

Quick acting safety devices, actuated by a breaking 
cable mechanism, are not, however, thoroughly reliable. 
If the cable should break near the winding drum of a 
machine which is located in a basement, the weight of 
the cable, and the friction caused by the cable passing 
over the head sheaves, w^ould be sufficient to prevent 
the operation of the safety device. Gears, which operate 
the winding drum, may also be stripped. In this case, the 
tension in the cable, caused by friction in unwinding, 
would similarly prevent the safety grips from acting. This 
form of safety device w^ould also be useless if the car should, 
through some defect in the winding mechanism, exceed the 
safe limit of speed. For these reasons, it is safer, in all 
cases, to use a speed governor. Safety dogs and rollers 
should not be allowed to become gummed with grease and 
dirt. They should be kept clean, and lubricated with 
light oil. Care should be taken to see that they are in 
proper adjustment. The governor mechanism should also 
be kept well lubricated. Guides should not be dressed 
with heavy grease. This may cause the dogs to become 
so gummed that they will fail to act. 

Passenger cars, which are operated by an electric motor, 
should be equipped with an emergency switch, which will 
shut off the power and apply the machine brake in case 
of emergency. If the shaft is a deep one, it is often ad- 
visable to provide an emergenc}' brake which can be oper- 
ated within the car. 

Automatic Limit Stops. — Wherever electrically oper- 



122 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ated cars are in use, limit switches, which automatically 
prevent the car from passing beyond the safe upper and 
lower limits of travel, should be installed in the shaftway. 
Automatic limit stops should be placed on all winding and 
traction machines, automatically shutting off the power 
and applying the brake when the car reaches the safe 
limit of travel at the top or bottom. 

The brakes of electrical machines should be designed to 
tighten mechanically when the electric circuit is opened, 
and to release electrically when the circuit is closed. Belt 
drives should never be used on passenger machines. 

A slack cable device, which will automatically shut off 
the powder in case the cable becomes slack, for any reason, 
should be placed on all drum machines. 

Lugs should be securely fastened at the top and bottom 
of the shifter rope of freight elevators, engaging a station- 
ary stop which is located on the car, thus automatically 
shutting off the power before the car passes beyond the 
safe limits at the extremities of the shaftway. 

Limit stops on the shifter rope of hydraulic elevators 
should be adjusted to stop the car a few inches above and 
below the top and bottom landings respectively. The back 
stop buttons should be adjusted to give the speed desired. 
Care should be taken to so adjust the limit stops that the 
car cannot strike the bumpers or permit the piston to 
strike a cylinder head. Limit stops, especially on a new 
rope, should occasionally be readjusted, if necessary, to 
compensate for stretching. 

Automatic cut-off valves should be used in connection 
with all hydraulic engines, in addition to the operating 
valves. These wdll prevent the travel of the car from ex- 
ceeding safe upper and lower limits. 

Automatic Locks. — All freight elevators should be 
equipped with a locking device, by means of which the 
car can be securely locked at any floor, while material is 
being loaded or unloaded. (Fig. 22.) A lock of this kind 
will effectively prevent a person at any other landing 




ELEVATORS 123 

from starting the car during these operations. Where 
locks are not provided and used, injuries to operators and 
workmen from this cause are frequent. 

Other types of locking devices should also be placed 
on shifter chains and rods, wherever they are used in place 
of ropes. 

Signals. — Both freight and passenger elevators should 
be equipped with an approved electrical signalling system. 
Passenger cars should be equipped 
with annunciators, which signal 
operators to stop at a given floor. 
Indicators should also be installed 
at each landing, showing pros- 
pective passengers the relative 
position of the car at any point 
of its travel. Red and white elec- 
tric lamp indicators may also be 

advantageously used ; a red lamp Automatic lock for freight elevator. 
should indicate that the car is Courtesy Angell Elevator Lock Co., 

descending, a white light that the 

car is ascending. In high office buildings, a telephone, which 
will enable the operator to talk with the starter, should be 
located within the car. 

Freight elevators should be equipped with an electrical 
signal gong, which can be rung by push buttons located 
at each landing. It is also advantageous, in case the ele- 
vator serves more than three floors, to provide annunciators, 
which will indicate the floor from which the signal is given. 

A suitable signalling system is highly important. The 
lack of signals, and the misunderstanding of signals, cause 
many accidents. Signalling by means of shouting, shaking 
the shifter rope, and tapping on rods, causes confusion. 
It ,is an exceedingly dangerous practice. 

Counterweights. — Counterweight sections should be se- 
curely fastened together by means of headers and through 
bolts, or fastened by means of a clamp at the top of the 
sections which passes around the vertical rods. 



124 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Counterweight Runways. — Counterweight runways, 
which are located within the shaft, should be completely 
and substantially enclosed at the top and bottom for a 
distance of 9 ft. Enclosure is advisable at the top, to pre- 
vent the possibility of sections of the counterweight from 
falling upon the car. It is important to enclose the coun- 
terweight runway at the bottom of the shaft, to prevent 
anyone being crushed when the counterweight is descend- 
ing, or from being injured by the shearing action of the 
counterweight with stationary projections on the wall of 
the shaft. 

In case the counterweight runway is located outside of 
the shaftway, it should be completely enclosed from top 
to bottom. 

Sheaves and Drums. — Sheaves and drums of too small 
diameter are frequently found in use. It is very important 
that the sheaves and drums be of sufficient diameter; 
otherwise, the rope will wear quickly, due to the excessive 
bending stresses in passing around the sheaves or drums. 
Wherever possible, idlers should be eliminated. They re- 
quire the cable to pass through a reverse curve, which 
greatly increases the wear, due to constant bending back 
and forth. If necessary to use an idler, it should be as 
large in diameter as the main sheaves. The minimum safe 
diameters of sheaves and drums for lifting and counter- 
weight cables of steel rope of 6 strands, 19 wires to the 
strand, are given in the following table: 



Q. f /-. I i„ Minimum diameter of Drum 
Size of Cable ^^ ^^^^^^ 


1 " 

4 


10" 


iV; 


14" 




18" 


iV' 


24" 


h" 


30" 


i" 


36" 


f 


42" 


3 ' 
4 


50" 


V 


58" 


1 ' 


66" 



ELEVATORS 125 

Sheaves and drums should always be keyed to the shaft. 
They should never be fastened with set screws. Each shaft 
should be of the same diameter throughout, with no reduc- 
tion in size at any point. Sheaves should be carefully 
aligned to eliminate uneven wear of the rope and the flanges 
of the sheave. Cable guards should be placed on sheaves 
and drums to prevent the cable, when slack, from running 
out of the grooves. It is also important that the grooves 
of sheaves and drums be of the proper size and shape to 
accommodate the cable. They should present a perfectly 
smooth bearing surface. Bushings should be renewed 
when worn, before the bearing can bind the shaft. Bear- 
ings should be kept w^ll lubricated. Sheaves should be 
carefully examined for cracked spokes and other defects. 

Location of Machines. — Machines should be placed in 
isolated fireproof compartments, w^hich should be kept 
locked. There should be adequate room and sufficient 
light to permit a safe and thorough inspection of all parts. 
In addition to one or more stationary electric lamps, a 
portable electric lamp with an extension cord should be 
placed in the room. The portable electric lamp should be 
protected with a wire basket guard. Machines should 
never be located underneath the shaftway. They should 
never be placed in a dark, obscure or crow^ded place 
where it would be impossible to make a safe and careful 
inspection. 

Hydraulic Machines. — Pressure tanks should be strongly 
built. They should be equipped with gauge glasses, 
manholes and safety relief valves. The latter should 
be large enough to discharge all of the water delivered 
from the pump without dangerously increasing the 
pressure. A stop valve should never be placed between 
the tank and the safety valve. If closed, for any reason, 
it would render the safety valve inoperative. Tanks 
should be internally inspected every two years for corro- 
sion and other defects. 

Piston rods are subject to corrosion. This is especially 



126 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

true where the water is impure or acidic. Piston rods 
should be inspected once a year. If badly corroded, they 
should be immediately replaced. If the car creeps, it sig- 
nifies that the packing is worn. In this case, repacking 
becomes necessary. 

Cylinders should be properly lubricated, at least every 
three weeks, with animal oil or grease. 

Sidewalk Elevators. — Sidewalk elevators, as a rule, 
are poorly safeguarded. Bars and chains do not afford 
proper protection for the opening. Collapsible gates should 
be used in connection with folding doors. It is preferable, 
in place of folding doors, to provide the opening with a 
suitable cover which may be raised or lowered by the car. 
The cover should normally be level with the surface of 
the walk. It should be connected to the car by means of 
vertical telescoping tubes at the corners of the car. As 
the car ascends, the cover will be raised. It will also be 
lowered as the car descends. Where such a cover is used, 
collapsible gates are unnecessary. In this case, chains may 
be used to guard the opening. 

Hand Power Elevators. — Hand power elevators should 
not be used w^here the distance of travel exceeds 50 ft. 
The car should be equipped with a quick acting safety 
device, operated by a breaking cable mechanism. The car 
should be suspended by two lifting cables. The unused 
sides of the car should be enclosed to a height of 6 ft. A 
hinged cover, which will release upward if caught by an 
obstruction, should be placed over the car. Standard 
gates should be placed at all entrances to the shaft way. 
The shaftway should be completely enclosed on all sides 
which are not used for entrance. Practically the same 
standards should apply to hand power elevators as to 
machine elevators. 

Dumb Waiters. — The shaftway of dumb waiters should 
be completely enclosed on the unused sides. Each open- 
ing should be provided with a vertical sliding door, so 
arranged that the carriage cannot be started until the 



ELEVATORS 127 

door is closed, nor opened until the carriage has stopped 
at the doorway. Speaking tubes should be installed in 
addition to an electrical signalling system. Caution signs 
and a table of signals should be placed near each opening. 
Employees should be especially warned never to thrust 
their heads or hands through any opening in the shaftway. 

Cables. — All suspended freight elevator cars, car counter- 
weights and drum counterweights, should each be provided 
with at least 2 cables — never with one alone. Passen- 
ger cars should preferably be suspended by 4 or 6 cables. 
Calculations for the load, which cables will safely carry, 
should never be based upon a factor of safety of less than 
10 on the ultimate tensile strength. The tensile strength 
of each cable should be in the neighborhood of 90,000 
lbs. per sq. in. Each cable should be independently fas- 
tened at both ends; otherwise, two cables wall only serve 
as one. Where additional capacity is required, the number 
of cables, instead of the diameter, should be increased. 
Standard steel cables of 6 strands, 19 wdres to a strand, with 
a hemp center, for both cars and counterweights, should 
invariably be used, unless it is desired to install cables 
with 37 wdres to the strand. The latter are more flexible. 
Under no circumstances should lifting or counterweight 
cables be spliced. 

The average life of a cable, subjected to ordinary w^ear, 
is about two years. In a cable of high efficiency, the wdres 
should wear nearly half way through before fracturing. If 
the wires break prematurely, before they become noticeably 
worn, it is probably due to undersize sheaves or drums, or 
to too wide or too narrow grooves, which flatten or cramp 
the rope respectively. 

The wear of a cable increases with the speed and the 
load. High speed will w^ear a cable faster than a heavy 
load, therefore, the load should preferably be increased 
rather than the speed. 

As soon as cables begin to show signs of wear, they 
should be carefully watched. There is no definite rule 



128 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

that can be laid down in regard to the number of wires 
which may become broken in a given distance before the 
cable should be condemned. Generally speaking, the 
cable should be replaced when 15 % of the wires in several 
adjacent strands are fractured. One wire may be broken 
a number of times within, say, 100 ft., and still retain 
most of its strength, on account of the resistance caused 
by adjacent wires; whereas, if the breaks occur near to- 
gether, most of its strength would be lost. Breaks that 
feel smooth to the hand, as it is passed over them, are 
not as severe as those which feel rough. When the broken 
wires slightly project, feeling rough as the hand is passed 
over them, or when they catch waste as the cable is rubbed 
with it, the cable should be discarded. Frayed cables are 
dangerous, indicating that the strength has been greatly 
reduced. A cable should not be used after it has lost 
15% of its strength. If the wires in one strand are broken 
at a point where an adjacent strand passes over it, it indi- 
cates that the wires have started to break on the inside. 
Cables sometimes break first on the inside. When this con- 
dition occurs, the cable should be immediately condemned, 
as it is then problematical whether or not all of the wires 
on the inside of the strands are broken. If many of the 
wires in one strand are seriously broken or frayed at any 
one point, the cable should be immediately replaced. 

Where any doubt exists as to the dependability of a 
cable, the safe course should be adopted, and the cable 
condemned. No chances should be taken, even if the 
cable is comparatively new. 

In drawing wire cable from a reel, the reel should be 
mounted on axles, or rolled along the floor. The cable 
should be carefully unwound to avoid kinking or bending 
in the opposite direction from which it was wound upon 
the reel. The cable should not be completely removed 
at once from the reel, as it might be bent in the wrong 
direction when placing it around a sheave or a drum. 
Cables should be so placed upon sheaves and drums that 



ELEVATORS 129 

they will retain the same bearing surface as the}^ had when 
wound upon reels. 

In replacing a defective lifting or counterweight cable, 
it is better to replace all of the cables with new ones. 
The cables will then stretch and w^ear more evenly, as the 
tension will be equally distributed. 

AATiere two counterweights run in the same slide, pipe 
sleeves should be attached to the cables of the lower counter- 
weight. These should extend upward for a few inches 
above the top of the upper counterweight. These pipe 
sleeves will then receive all of the wear and chafing which 
would otherwise come on the cables of the lower counter- 
weight, which run through the upper one. 

Cables should be so placed on drums that, when the 
counterweight of the car is at the highest or lowest limit 
of travel, as the case may be, there will be at least two 
full turns of the cable on the drum. 

Shifter ropes should receive an occasional inspection, 
being replaced before a large percentage of the wires be- 
come broken. Passing the hand along the rope will reveal 
its condition. If it feels very rough, it should be discarded. 

Cables should be kept w^ell lubricated with a mixture 
of graphite and cylinder oil. Lubricants should be free 
from acids and other corrosive substances. Cables should 
also be free from moisture. 

The primary causes of failure of cables are due to ex- 
ternal wear, internal abrasion, fracturing, and the so called 
crystallization of steel. 

Cable Fastenings. — The thimble type of fastening 
consists of a curved oval thimble around which the cable 
is bent, the short end extending upward two or three 
feet. This should be clamped to the main length of cable 
with at least 3 properly fitted clips. There should be no 
sharp ends on the thimble, which might cut the cable, at 
the point where the arms converge. This form of fasten- 
ing has the advantage of being readily accessible for in- 
spection. 



130 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Socket fastenings, if used, should be made with great 
care. The wires should be frayed out at the end of the 
cable, and bent over or looped at the end. The bunch of 
wires should conform to the conical aperture of the socket. 
Molten babbitt metal should then be poured in, forming a 
solid conical fastening. Before pouring in the babbitt 
metal, the wires should be heated sufficiently to prevent 
chilling. The babbitt metal should not be heated to too 
high a temperature, otherwise the wires will be burned, 
greatly reducing the strength of the fastening. 

Capacity. — The lifting capacity should be limited to 
1/10 the breaking strength of the cables. In calculating the 
safe maximum capacity, the unbalanced weight of the car 
should be taken into consideration. The strength of the 
car should also be based on a liberal factor of safety. 

Speed. — For local passenger elevators, usually stopping 
at all floors, the speed should not exceed 350 ft. per min- 
ute. In this case, the governor should be set to operate 
at a speed of 550 ft. per minute. Greater car speeds for 
local passenger elevators are undesirable. They often 
cause the operator to run the car past a given floor, in 
case he does not receive the signal in time to stop. This 
causes inconvenience and a loss of time to passengers. In 
an emergency, the safety device might also fail to act 
quickly enough to prevent the car from striking the bot- 
tom of the shaft, thus causing serious injury to passen- 
gers. Excessive speeds also cause greater wear and tear 
on equipment. For express elevators in high office build- 
ings, greater speed can be advantageously employed, but 
the speed for express elevators should not exceed 600 ft. 
per minute. 

Freight elevators should be limited to a speed of 250 
ft. per minute. Where a speed governor is used in con- 
nection with the safety device, it should then be set to 
trip at a speed of 400 ft. per minute. 

Operation. — Careful operation of elevators is essential 
to safety. A regular male operator, at least 21 years of 



1 



ELEVATORS 131 

age, should be provided for both passenger and freight 
elevators. Accidents are just as likely to occur on a freight 
elevator, if not properly operated, as they are on a passen- 
ger elevator. This is especially true where freight eleva- 
tors are not properly guarded. It is, therefore, important 
to assign a regular operator to each freight elevator. All 
other persons should be forbidden to operate an elevator. 
Where a freight elevator is not in continuous use, the oper- 
ator can be employed at other duties near the shaft way. 

A careful operator should be selected. Where possible, 
men of experience in the operation of elevators should be 
assigned to this work. In all cases, the employment of 
careless men and minors should be avoided. A new man 
should be thoroughly instructed before he is allowed to 
take charge. 

Starters should, of course, be employed in large stores 
and office buildings to properly handle the traffic and 
prevent confusion and overcrowding. 

Warning Signs. — In the case of freight elevators, con- 
spicuous warning signs, such as ''danger — employees 

ARE FORBIDDEN TO RIDE ON THIS ELEVATOR," should be 

placed over each entrance to the shaftway. These will 
serve to prevent unauthorized employees from using the 
elevator. Freight elevators should not be promiscuousl}^ 
used for the benefit of employees. Only a selected few 
should be allowed to ride upon them. Employees should 
use the stairways in going from one floor to another; they 
should not use the freight elevators. 

A sign, "keep this gate shut," should be placed on 
all gates w^hich, when closed, do not automatically latch 
on the inside. 

A capacity sign, indicating the maximum load in pounds 
which the car can safely carr}', should be located in a con- 
spicuous place within each freight car. Operators should 
be instructed not to allow this limit to be exceeded under 
any circumstances. 

Tests. — A weekly inspection and test of safet}^ devices 



132 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

should be made by a competent mechanic. Where a speed 
governor is used, the safety device may be tested by simply 
tripping the governor as the car is descending near the 
bottom of the shaft. A careful examination of the governor 
mechanism, governor rope and sheaves should be made. 

Safety devices, which are operated by a breaking cable 
mechanism, may be tested by blocking up the car. The 
car should be blocked at the landing in the basement, and 
not at the floors above. The car should then be gently 
raised by a jack or a pry-bar, until the cables become 
slack. The dogs or cams will then engage the guides and 
hold the car if the device works properly. 

These testing operations should always be performed 
when the car is within a few feet of the bottom of the 
shaft, thus eliminating the possibility of a long fall. After 
testing, care should be taken to see that the cables follow 
in the proper grooves in the drum and sheaves as slack is 
taken up. Drums and sheaves should be provided with 
cable guards, preventing slack cables from running out of 
the grooves. 

Inspection and Maintenance. — Each elevator should 
receive a frequent inspection at regular intervals by a 
competent engineer or mechanic. Too great importance 
cannot be attached to the value of thorough inspection 
and proper care of elevators. Defective and worn parts 
should be replaced. Proper lubrication of all machinery, 
including the cables, is essential. Machinery should not 
be allowed to become gummed with oil and dirt, nor cor- 
roded by moisture or fumes. All parts should be kept in 
perfect adjustment at all times. 

ELEVATOR RULES 

1 . Employees should be forbidden to ride on freight elevators, unless their 
duties require it. 

2. Never attempt to step or jump on or off a moving elevator. 

3. Never use an elevator without permission from those in authority. 

4. Always start and stop the car gradually, never suddenly. 

5. Never use the automatic limit stops or locks to stop the car; always 
stop the car by hand. 



ELEVATORS 133 



■ 

^F 6. Gates or doors should not ho opoiKMl until the ol{>vutor has como to a 

B full stop. 

^B 7. The car should not \)v started until t h(> gate or door (unless automatic) 

^B is closed and latched. 

^H 8. Never start the car with jiassengers near the doorway. 

^B 9, Never attempt to speed the elevator either up or down. 

^B 10. Never allow the car to he overloaded. 

^B 11. Never step on, or walk across, folding hatch doors. 

^B 12. Hand trucks should always he locked on the platform, or held from 

^B movement by an employee, before the car is started. 

■■ 13. Never start the car until sure that there are no projecting articles ex- 

^ tending over the edge of the platform. 

14. Keep gates shut at all times, when the entrance is not in use. 

15. Always wait a sufficient length of time after signalling, in order that 
anyone who may be operating the elevator may respond. 

16. Never wedge or prop up a gate, or tie it to an overhead beam, dates 
should be in perfect working order at all times. 

17. Keep your hands, feet, head and all other parts of the body, entirely 
within the car at all times, except when entering or leaving. 

18. Never look or lean over a gate. 

19. Never stand inside a gate, when the gate is closerl. 

20. Never allow material, tools or any other objects to fall into the shaft. 

21. Never fool, or indulge in " horseplay," on or about an elevator. 

22. Never pull hand trucks, or other material, backward upon an elevator. 

23. Never go into a pit unless your duties require it. First, always notify 
the operator not to move the car. 

24. Never ride on the cover of an elevator. 

25. Never lean against a gate. 

26. Never attempt to load or unload material until sure that the car is 
locked at the landing. 

27. In case the safety device acts to stop the car, do not, \mder any cir- 
cumstances, allow the passengers to attempt to get out of the car. Never try 
to start the car in either direction, while in this position. 

28. In case the elevator cannot be moved either up or down, set the hand 
wheel, lever or rope, in the center position; do not try to start it again until it 
has been repaired. 

29. Never reverse an operating lever or wheel, until the car has come to a 
full stop. 

30. Be sure to center the hand-rope, wheel or lever of an electric eknator, 
when stopping; otherwise, the motor may be burned out. 

31. Be sure to center the hand-rope of a steam elevator when stopping. 

32. Be sure to pull the hand-rope of a belt-driven elevator as far as pos- 
sible in starting. Use the check rope for stopping. 

33. Creeping of a steam or belt-driven elevator signifies that the brake is 
not working properly, and it should be repaired before using. 

34. In ca.se a hydraulic elevator creeps, it signifies that the packing in the 
I)iston or valve is defective. This should be immediately repaired before the 
elevator is used again. 



134 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

35. Never operate an elevator with a tight or loose hand-rope. See that 
adjustments are made by the proper person. 

36. In case a steam elevator increases its speed in descending, it signifies 
that the piston, piston-valves or reversing-valves need repacking. The elevator 
should not be used until these have been repacked. 

37. Make occasional tests of the speed governor and safety device. 

38. Make frequent inspections of all cables for broken wires. 

39. Make frequent inspections of the machinery, sheaves, limit stops, guides, 
springs, safety device and all other parts. 

40. Repair defective flooring on the platform of the car, and on each floor 
at the entrances. Keep flooring in a safe condition. 

41. If anything seems to be wrong with the elevator, do not try to operate 
it until the needed adjustments have been made. 

42. Never attempt to adjust or tamper with any part of an elevator, unless 
you are familiar with the mechanism, and authorized to make repairs. 

43. See that the car is kept locked whenever a man is in the pit, or on the 
overhead rigging, and do not, under any circumstances, allow anyone on the car 
while repairs are being made. 



CHAPTER X 

ELECTRICITY 

Common Accidents. * — Electrical accidents are divided 
into two main groups; those caused by electrical flashes, 
and those caused by contact with live conductors. 

Flashes. — Flashes or arcs occur upon breaking or nio- 
mentaril}' short-circuiting a direct or alternating current. 
For example, a switch in a heavily loaded circuit may be 
opened by mistake; wires with deficient insulation may 
become crossed; an electrician working at a switchboard 
may allow his screw driver to slip on a contact. These 
flashes from high voltage conductors cause severe flesh 
burns and injuries to the eyes, which are very painful and 
dangerous. With a voltage much in excess of 15,000, a 
man seldom makes an actual contact with the conductor, 
because the current jumps over to his fingers, flexing 
them, and rendering it impossible for him to make the 
contact unless he is thrown upon it. It takes a person a 
perceptible length of time to approach a conductor, but 
the discharge is instantaneous. This discharge of current, 
which bridges the interval of space between the conductor 
and the victim, causes extensive surface burns and serious 
electrical shock. 

When the discharge hits a man who is approaching a 
high voltage conductor, he falls as if shot. The discharge 
may carry a heavy current, though more frequently the 
man receives a small current, which is enough, however, 
to violently flex the muscles of his arm and legs, causing 
him to fall in a heap. Such precipitation assists in pre- 

* Tho suhjoct matter under this heading; is an extract from a hook on 
"Electrical Injuries" by Dr. C. A. Lauffer, Medical Director, Westingliouse 
Electric & Mfg. Co., pui)lislied by John Wiley & Sons, New York. 



136 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

venting him from receiving the more dangerous contact. 
If the man grasps a low voltage conductor, the electrical 
stimulation of his muscles causes his grip to tighten; and, 
if unassisted, he is often unable to release his hold. 

Electrical flashes should be prevented and eliminated 
where possible. The careful handling of plugs and switches 
is imperative. During tests and repair work, the circuits 
should be open where practicable. Switches should be 
padlocked, and danger signs attached. The testing appara- 
tus and immediate surroundings should be isolated by 
ropes. In repairing transmission lines and transformers^ 
the lines should be thoroughly grounded at the point of 
repair on any side from which the power might be acci- 
dentally thrown on. Sleeves should be down, covering as 
much of the arms as possible. When working about elec- 
trical apparatus, the bare arms should not be exposed. 
The face should not be needlessly exposed in opening or 
closing a switch, especially on a line carrying a heavy load. 
Great caution should be observed in approaching live high 
voltage conductors. A safe distance should be maintained 
at all times. High voltage discharges have been known 
to jump some distance from the switchboard, enveloping 
a man in a flame, knocking him down in an unconscious 
condition, and severely burning him. High voltage should 
never be disregarded. On the contrary, being a dangerous 
factor, it should always receive a great deal of respect. 

While the arcing distance for different voltages is 
given in every standard electrical handbook, there are 
surges in high voltage, rendering it at times abnormal. 
Consequently, there may be arcing to a greater distance 
than is ordinarily anticipated. When the air resistance is 
once broken down, the flaming arc may carry considerable 
current to anyone who has approached too near. 

Although electrical flashes are of momentary duration, 
the heat developed in an instant of time is often very 
great. This intense heat produces painful burns on the 
unprotected skin and eyes. 



ELECTRICITY 137 

High voltage flashes cause destruction of all the layers 
of the skin over large areas. 

Great mental excitation, and even transient mania, are 
sometimes observed in these cases. On the contrary, some 
victims are relaxed, unconscious, and asphyxiated, requir- 
ing immediate resuscitation by artificial respiration. 

Contact Injuries. — The two types of contact injuries 
are shocks and burns. The passage of an electric current 
through the body may cause a momentary unpleasantness; 
or the retention of the victim within the circuit, rendering 
him unable to release himself; or a suspension of conscious- 
ness during which he falls, but again revives if the fall 
does not kill him; or a suspension of animation which re- 
quires immediate artificial respiration. 

There is a wide variety of external and individual condi- 
tions that influence the extent and character of electrical 
injuries. Statistics thus often appear inconsistent. Indi- 
vidual susceptibility is an important element. Even the 
emotions have an important effect. Cases have been re- 
ported where a lineman has died of fright on touching a 
high voltage line which was not charged at all. In 
certain instances, only 110 volts may prove fatal. Again, 
under certain conditions, a man may receive 15,000 volts 
with impunit3\ 

Other things being equal, the higher the voltage, the 
greater will be the electrical current through the body. 
The greater the number of points of contact, and the 
longer the duration, the greater will be the danger to life. 
The human body is a relatively poor conductor. Its high 
resistance greatly reduces the amperage of the current. It 
is usually a shunted current which the victim receives, — 
a leakage from the line, and not the full current, as many 
believe. 

Wiring. — All electrical wires should be enclosed in 
conduits of metal pipe. No open wiring should be allowed. 
If wires are not run in metal conduits, they should be en- 
cased in approved mouldings. Wires should not be allowed 



138 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

in concealed work. They should not be used in places 
exposed to dampness, unless they are covered with ap- 
proved waterproof insulating material. Wires should never 
be buried in plaster, nor attached to wood by staples. 
Neither should they be supported upon wood or metal. 
Where wires are not run in a metal conduit, or an approved 
moulding, they should at least be supported upon non- 
combustible insulators. A metal pipe conduit, or wooden 
moulding, does not insulate the wires, but it serves to pro- 
tect them from dampness, acids, alkalies, blows, abrasion 
and any other force which may cause the insulation to 
become defective. The metal pipe conduit best protects 
the wires from physical or chemical injury. 

Wires should be completely insulated at all joints or 
connections. All joints should be safely enclosed in junc- 
tion boxes. Open wiring is dangerous on account of the 
fact that it may either cause accidents or fires. It is espe- 
cially dangerous if the floors are damp or the insulation 
defective. Excess current may break down the insulation 
protecting the wires. Especially dangerous cables and ap- 
paratus should be painted red, and warning signs and 
notices placed at all dangerous points. All dangerous 
parts should be guarded against accidental contact. 

The greatest care should be observed when working on 
or about any kind of electrical apparatus. No one except 
the electricians should be allowed to touch electrical ap- 
paratus or wires of any kind. Care should be taken to 
obtain proper insulation from the ground. Wires should 
never be worked upon when standing or sitting in a wet 
place, nor when standing upon metal work. No circuit 
should be worked upon until the power has been shut off, 
and the switch padlocked. If it becomes absolutely neces- 
sary to work upon a live circuit, care should be taken to 
work upon but one wire at a time, and to use only one 
hand so far as possible. Rubber gloves should always be 
worn when working upon live circuits, and when working 
upon high tension circuits over 220 volts, which are known 



ELECTRICITY 139 

or believed to be dead. Employers should provide stand- 
ard tested rubber gloves for the electricians. These gloves 
should be kept in good condition, and should always be 
inspected before use. 

Portable towers, for use in wiring on street railways, 
should be provided with a wooden guard railing and toe- 
board about the top to prevent men or tools from falling. 
Linemen are always subject to severe falls caused by elec- 
trical shock or by slipping. Linemen should always have 
assistants with them, when engaged in this kind of work, to 
render aid in case of an emergency. Electricians, working 
upon telephone or telegraph lines, should wear safety belts. 
The belts should be extra strong, and provided with suitable 
sockets for linemen's tools. These belts should always be 
carefully inspected before use. The handles of uninsulated 
tools should be wound with insulating tape to lessen the 
danger of shock in case of accidental contact with a live 
conductor. Wooden clamps, or tongs, about one yard in 
length should be used for handling live wires when down. 
Linemen should also be provided with thick rubber shields 
which may be clamped over high tension wires when working 
on poles. 

Transformers. — Where transformers are within main 
buildings, they should be isolated in separate, enclosed, 
fireproof vaults, ventilated with a chimney or a flue. These 
rooms should be kept locked. A prominent danger sign 
should be placed on the door, forbidding employees to 
enter the room. The floors in transformer rooms should 
always be free from moisture. They should be of non- 
conducting material, and covered with thick rubber mats. 
It is preferable to isolate the transformers in a separate 
locked building, built for this purpose. There is then less 
danger of employees entering the room, if the door is left 
unlocked through carelessness. Where transformers are 
located on poles, railed platforms should be provided, which 
will allow a safe and easy inspection. The transformers 
and platform should be located at such height that no access 



140 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

can be obtained to them except by a ladder. This will keep 
away children and others who have no right to go there. 
Prominent danger signs should also be painted on the 
cases of transformers. 

All transformer cases should be thoroughly grounded. 
Connections should be completely insulated. Connections 
to the ground should be so constructed that they cannot 
be broken by the removal of the fuse box or other parts 
of the case. All holes in transformer cases, through which 
high voltage conductors pass, should be bushed with thick 
insulation. All connections of the high voltage wires with 
the transformers should be completely insulated, and so 
protected that it will be impossible to accidentally touch 
them. Switches for shutting off both the high and low 
voltage currents of transformers, should be operated from 
the outside of the building. All metal objects within 
transformer rooms should be effectively grounded. 

Transformers and connections should receive periodical 
examinations. Leads which have been exposed to the 
weather for long periods often become stripped of insula- 
tion. They may thus come in contact with the case. 

Generators and Motors. — Generators and motors 
should be located in dry places. They should be mounted 
at least 8" above the floor on dry wood. Pans should be 
placed underneath to catch all oil drippings. Above 250 
volts, the frames, and other non-conducting metallic parts, 
should be effectively grounded. Under 250 volts, the 
frames should be insulated from the ground. In any 
case, the flooring about motors and generators should be 
of some insulating material, covered with rubber mats. 
Generators and motors should also be guarded with sub- 
stantial wooden railings, or railings which are covered with 
insulating material. (Fig. 23.) Rubber mats should never 
be allowed to become wet or covered with oil. Wooden mats, 
with no metal parts of any kind, are more substantial. 

Where generators and motors are placed near walls, 
the belt side should be placed next to the wall. There is 



ELECTRICITY 



141 



then less danger of anyone being caught by the belt when 

The belts of all motors 



working on or about the machine 




Fig. 23 

Properly fiuanlcl motor. Belt guard of expanded 

metal and angle iron in addition to pipe railing. 

Courtesy Goulds Manufacluring Company. 

and generators should be guarded to a height of 6 feet 
from the floor or platform level. All generators and motors 



142 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

should be protected by automatic circuit breakers. They 
should be covered with waterproof hoods when not in use. 
All dangerous exposed parts of generators and motors should 
be covered with metal guards. Generators and motors 
should be controlled by multi-pole switches. Starting 
switches should be provided with locks, so that they may 
be locked on or off position. Where possible, non-magnetic 
tools and oil cans should be used in working about motors 
and generators. Magnetic objects are likely to be drawn 
into the machine. 

Switchboards. — Switchboards should be located in dry 
places. The floor at both the front and rear should be 
covered with thick rubber matting, or some other insulat- 
ing material. The rear of all switchboards should be en- 
tirely fenced off at both ends between the switchboard and 
the wall, or guarded by a fencing about the rear. (Fig. 
24.) If near a wall, the switchboard should be located at 
least 3^ feet from it, in order to leave sufficient room for 
examinations and repairs. The entrances to the rear of 
all switchboards should be kept locked. A space of 18'^ 
should be left between the floor and the bottom of the 
board, to prevent the accumulation of any oily waste and 
rubbish, which might otherwise escape notice. The switch- 
board should be equipped with a master switch for ren- 
dering the board ^^dead." The switchboard should be 
dead before any work or repairs are made upon it. 

Switches. — The service wires to any building should 
be provided with a service switch, which will shut off the 
current, preventing it from entering the building. The 
switch should be located on the outside of the building, or 
outside the transformer house. 

Switches should be mounted upon non-conductible 
bases and enclosed in metal boxes or wire mesh enclosures, 
which can be locked. (Fig. 25.) Switches should be located 
in dry places. All switches should be of the double or 
multi-pole type. The carrying capacity should be sufficient 
to prevent heating. Switches should never be designed to 



ELECTRICITY 



143 



close by gravity; otherwise, they may be accidently closed 
by vibration, by being hit, or by other causes. Switches 
should be so designed that they may be locked on or off 




Fig. 24 
Proporly protected switchboard. Locked door at each end 
in rear, railing in front, and riib])or mats both front 
and rear. 

Courtesy Chalmers Knitting Company. 

position. This will prevent anyone from accidentally brush- 
ing against them, making or breaking the circuit. It will 
also prevent anyone from causing an accident by tampering 
with them. Oil switches, or enclosed switches, should be 




144 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

used where a spark might cause a fire or an explosion. 
Switches should not be allowed to become loose or defec- 
tive. They should never be placed over wet floors, metal 
plates, behind belts, or in any other 
dangerous and inaccessible places. 

Circuit Breakers. — A circuit breaker 
is a device for breaking the connection 
between the generator or motor, and the 
circuit. It serves the same purpose as a 
fuse, but it is more sensitive, operating 
instantly where there is an excessive cur- 
rent. A fuse requires time to be heated 
sufficiently before the circuit is broken. 
Fig. 25 The breaker operates upon the principle 

Enclosed locked switch, ^f ^^ electro-magnet. It is so adjusted 
Courtesy Detroit Fuse & that when the magnet is excited above 

Mfg. Co. . . • r • • X 

a given maximum, a piece oi iron is at- 
tracted to it. This piece is connected to a trigger which 
releases a spring, forcing the switch open. 

There are several different kinds of circuit breakers 
which are used for various purposes. 

The ''overload" breaker protects the motor, and motor 
driven machine, from being unduly overloaded from any 
cause. Overload may be caused by too rapid starting of 
the motor, by working the motor driven machine beyond 
its capacity, by faulty adjustments in the driven machine, 
by foreign bodies in its working parts, or from a variety 
of similar reasons. 

The ''no voltage" circuit breaker is used for motor 
protection, where the source of current supply is subject 
to occasional interruption. If the power supply to a 
direct current motor is interrupted long enough to permit 
the motor to slow down, or stop entirel}^, and is then 
restored, with the motor starter in the running position, 
the motor will receive' a current much in excess of its 
capacity. This will suddenl}^ start the machinery, very 
likely resulting in an accident. In any case, the motor 



ELECTRICITY 145 

and machinery may be ruined. The ''no voltage" breaker 
prevents this by automatically disconnecting the motor 
from the line when, after the cessation or interruption of 
the power supply, the speed of the motor suddenly falls 
below normal. These circuit breakers are so arranged that 
all the switches must be opened before the machinery can 
again be started. 

The ''shunt trip" circuit breaker is used on cranes and 
hoists, to prevent overwinding, and in other similar in- 
stances where it is desired to limit the distance of travel 
of any object. They are of value in textile mills using 
individual motor drive. Where each motor is protected 
with a "shunt trip" breaker, the possibility of injury to 
employees is greatly diminished, as a ready means is 
afforded to instantly cut off the power from any given 
machine. 

The "time limit" circuit breaker protects motors from 
undue continuance of heavy starting currents, such as 
might result from attempts to start motors w^hich are too 
heavil}^ loaded, or with one phase disconnected. This 
breaker is designed to open on long continued moderate 
overloads, although it will, nevertheless, permit the passage 
of heavier currents for a sufficient period in starting, pro- 
vided load conditions are normal. Obviously, with the 
above arrangement, the sensitiveness of the circuit breaker 
to overloads is limited by the requirements for starting. 
Where motors are employed in connection with delicate 
mechanical operations, it is sometimes desirable to make 
the breaker responsive to even the slightest overloads. 
For such contingencies, a special form of circuit breaker 
may be used, in which a single multi-polar switch is under 
the control of two sets of overload coils, one set being in 
circuit on the starting side, and the other on the running 
side. As the maximum instantaneous value of the start- 
ing current is practically independent of the load, the only 
protection possible during the starting period is not the 
limiting of the starting current, but the prevention of its 



146 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

undue continuance. ''Time limit" circuit breakers on the 
starting side are, therefore, essential adjuncts of the over- 
load features. They are also desirable on the running side 
unless the highest degree of sensitiveness to overload is 
required. 

Circuit breakers can, in fact, be advantageously adapted 
to practically any kind of service. They act as a valuable 
safeguard against serious electrical variations in the circuit 
and the unexpected starting of machinery. Certain types 
of circuit breakers have the functions of the circuit breaker 
and the switch combined in a single instrument. This 
type of circuit breaker is particularly adapted to the pro- 
tection of motors and employees whose management is 
likely to be in the hands of those who are ignorant, care- 
less, or lacking in a proper knowledge of electricity. Often, 
a workman closes a circuit breaker before the switches are 
opened, causing an accident and ruining machinery. With 
these types of circuit breakers it is impossible to close the 
circuit during the continuance of the overload. Should an 
overload arise, through a closed switch which should have 
been opened, the switch arm will instantly be released. 
The circuit will thus remain broken regardless of the 
amount of pressure which may be exerted upon the handle. 
These circuit breakers can be used on either two or three 
wire systems with an equally advantageous effect. They 
have the advantage of protecting both the machinery and 
the workmen. 

Fuses. — All fuses and cut-outs should be marked with 
their safe carrying capacity in amperes. They should be 
enclosed in metal boxes which are readily accessible. Fuse 
boxes should be kept closed. The plug should be of mois- 
ture proof and non-conducting material, so constructed 
that an arc cannot be maintained across its terminals by 
the fusing of the metal. Fuses should be placed at every 
point where a change is made in the size of the wire, unless 
the one in the larger wire will protect the smaller. Extra 
fuses should be kept in a handy place where they can be 



ELECTRICITY 147 

immediately used to replace burnt fuses. In no case should 
a fuse ever be bridged with wire. This would leave the cir- 
cuit without a safety device, endangering life and property. 

Arc Lamps. — All exposed parts of arc lamps should 
be carefully insulated from the circuit. Each lamp should 
be provided with a hand switch, located at a convenient 
place away from the lamp, and also an automatic switch 
which will shunt the current in case the carbon fails to 
feed properl3\ Stops should be provided to prevent the 
carbons from falling out, in case the lamp becomes loose. 
Lamps should be provided with a lowering device, which 
wdll automatically shunt the current when they are lowered 
for cleaning and trimming. This device eliminates the 
necessity of lamp trimmers climbing on cranes or crane 
runways, or on other dangerous overhead places. Each 
lamp should be provided with a wire-glass globe, fastened 
upon a closed base. This will hold the glass in case 
of breakage. Broken or cracked glass globes should be 
immediately replaced. Lamps should be equipped with 
approved spark arresters, where inflammable material is 
used or stored, to retain any sparks of molten copper or 
heated carbon. Globes should be cleaned every time the 
lamp is trimmed. If a lowering device is not installed, 
suitable platforms should be provided for lamp trimmers. 

Incandescent Lamps. — Where incandescent lamps are 
used in a room where volatile or explosive fluids are con- 
fined, they should be completely encased in vapor-proof 
globes of strong glass. Connections should be carefully 
made, and conductors insulated at all points. No switches, 
resistances, circuit breakers, or other electrical appliances 
should be located in the room. Warning signs should be 
conspicuously displayed at points where there is special 
danger of accident. All dangerous places should be 
guarded. Portable lamps should be protected with suit- 
able basket guards. This type of guard protects, to 
some extent, the lamp from being broken. The handle 
should be of wood, and there should be no metal parts 



148 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

which can cause a short circuit, giving a shock to whomso- 
ever may be holding the lamp. 

Storage and Primary Batteries. — When the current 
for light and power is taken from secondary or primary 
batteries, the same precautions should be observed as with 
similar apparatus fed from generators or motors develop- 
ing the same difference of potential. All secondary bat- 
teries should be mounted upon non-combustible insulators. 

ELECTRICAL RULES 

1. All persons, except electricians, should be forbidden to handle or touch 
electrical apparatus of any kind. 

2. Be cautious and alert at all times, and under all conditions. 

3. Never fool or experiment with electricity in any way. 

4. Do not take any unnecessary risks, even though the voltage is low. Avoid 
even slight shocks when in high places. 

5. If you see any person handling electrical apparatus who has no right to 
do so, stop him at once, and report the matter to the foreman. 

6. If you see any electrical equipment in an unsafe condition, or being 
improperly operated, correct the condition, or report the matter to the foreman. 

7. In handling any circuit known to be " alive," wherever possible, use only 
one hand. It is best to keep the other hand behind the back. The most danger- 
ous shocks are those from hand to hand. 

8. Never attempt to extinguish a fire on or about electrical apparatus with 
water. Water is a conductor of electricity. Use a powder extinguisher, blankets 
or sand. 

9. Never look at an intense arc without adequate eye protection, such as 
heavy blue and red glasses. Often, intense pain results from exposure of the deli- 
cate nerves of the eye to the light of an electric arc. As this pain does not often 
manifest itself until several hours afterwards, you should immediately see a 
doctor, if you have so exposed your eyes. 

10. Never handle electric wires while standing or sitting in a wet place. 
Use care to obtain insulation from the ground. 

IL Never do any work on equipment, where its operation might injure you, 
until the power is turned off, and you have attached a safety padlock to the 
switch, bearing your name or number, so that the equipment cannot be operated 
until you have released it. 

12. Never close a switch without full knowledge concerning the circuit, 
and why the switch was opened. 

13. The insulation on electric wires cannot be depended upon to protect 
you from shock. So far as possible, avoid working on any ''live" circuits. 

14. So far as possible, treat all circuits as though they were " alive," even 
though you know or believe them to be dead. None but experienced men should 
work on lamp circuits. First, cut the lamp out of the circuit by means of the switch. 

15. Switches, motors, generators, circuit-breakers, or other electrical ap- 



ELECTRICITY 149 

paratiis capable of raiisinp; a sj^ark, sliould iK^xcr Ix^ placed in rooms \vhci"(> volatile 
or inflaininahle material is confiiuMl. 

16. Linemen shoukl always wear safety belts when working overhead. 

17. Rubl)er gloves should be provided for electricians. They should be 
kept in good condition, and always inspected before use. They should be* worn 
by electricians when working about " live wires," or on high tension lines. 

IS. ^^'hen working on high tension lines, never fail to keep an assistant 
near you to render aid in case of emergency. 

19. Rubber mats, or other non-conducting treads, should b(> jjlaced al)out 
all switchboards, motors, generators, transformers, and all high tension ai)paratus. 

20. Never allow floors about an}- electrical apparatus to l)ecome wet. 

21. Never l)ridge a fuse with wire. 

22. See that all fuses are enclosed, that fuse boxes arc kept shut, and that 
extra fuses are kept near the fuse box. 

23. No examination, repairs or alterations necessitating the handling of 
machines, wires, cables or other electrical apparatus under high voltage, should 
be made when the circuit is closed, unless absolutely necessary; and then the 
work should be done only by an expert electrician. 

24. Sleeves should not l)e rolled up, exposing the arms, when working about 
electrical apparatus. 

25. Power feeders, above 250 volts, should be handled with great care. 
Carelessness might cause a fatal accident. Such systems, when " aHve," should 
never be worked upon out of doors during rainy or damp weather, nor at any time, 
except with the approval of the Chief Electrician. 

26. Remember that, under certain conditions, it is possible to receive a 
fatal shock from a 115-volt circuit. 

27. When working upon " alive " circuits, care should be taken to work u])on 
but one wire at a time. All parts of the body should be properly insulated from 
the ground and other wires of the circuit. Insulate each joint as it is made, ])e- 
fore starting on another wire. Be sure you are properly protected from falling 
from the scaffold, crane, etc., in case of shock. Careless haste, in working on 
"ahve" circuits, is the cause of most electrical accidents. 

28. The handles of all electrical tools should be properly taped to assi.^t in 
preventing short circuits across them. 

29. Before using hand lamps in a room w^here volatile or inflammable sub- 
stances are used or stored, be sure that they are covered with wire guards. See 
that the wires and connections are properh' insulated. 

30. If anyone should come in contact with ''live" wires or cables, and be 
unable to release his grasp on the wires, do not attempt to pull him off with ))are 
hands. Shut off the current, if possible, and protect the hands with rubber gloves; 
or if they are not to be had, use thick folds of cloth to cover the hands, before 
attempting to release the victim. If the wires are lying directly on top of the 
victim, use a dry stick to remove them. 

31. Flexible cord for lamps should not be tied on metal rods or nails, nor 
allowed to come in contact with water or oil. 

32. There are many special conditions which make electrical work dangerous. 
Even telephone or signal wires may l)ecome cro.'jsed with high tension wires, be- 
coming dangerously charged. Competent electricians are always careful and alert. 



CHAPTER XI 

TRANSMISSION 

Shafting. — Shafting within 7 feet of a floor or plat- 
form should be completely encased with a cylindrical 
sheet metal covering. (Fig. 26.) In place of this, wire mesh 
or wood may be used for enclosure. All dead ends of 
shafting should be similarly guarded. Although bare 
shafting appears perfectly harmless, nevertheless it fre- 
quently causes a fatal accident. Bare revolving shafting 
is capable of engaging loose or torn clothing and quickly 
winding it upon itself, whirling a victim to death. Shaft- 
ing is especially apt to catch loose clothing if it is marred 
or bruised, thus forming a rough surface. Long flowing 
neckties, unbuttoned jumpers, loose aprons and strings, 
loose suspender straps, and the loose hair of women 
are frequently caught by revolving shafting with fatal 
results. 

The cylindrical sheet metal covering shown in the figure 
consists of two sections, so that it may be easily placed 
about shafting. This cover remains loose on the shaft, 
affording absolute protection. Ordinarily, it revolves with 
the shafting, but as soon as pressure is applied its motion 
is immediately arrested. Spirally wound paper cylinders 
or mailing tubes may be used in place of a sheet metal 
covering. After being slit longitudinally they can be 
easily slipped upon shafting and then fastened by gluing 
the parts together along the slit with a strip of tape. 

Keys. — All protruding keys should be completely 
covered, including keys on power working machines. Un- 
used parts of keyways should be filled flush with the sur- 
face of the shafting with tallow or wax. 



TRAXSMISSIOX 



151 



2 ^ 







152 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Couplings. — All couplings should be of a safety type. 
Old style couplings, containing protruding nuts and bolt- 
ends, should be entirely eliminated. If used, there is always 

danger that they may 
catch the clothing of a 
careless workman, thus 
causing an injury. 

Fig. 27 shows a view 
of the latest and by far 
Fig. 27 the best type of safety 

BuU-dog" shaft coupling, an improved coupling ou the market. 

safety type. 




Courtesy Automatic Shaft Coupling Co. 



It consists of a metal 
cylinder having two inte- 
rior eccentric chambers which are equipped with steel rollers 
held in place by stiff wire brackets. The coupling automati- 
cally locks itself as it is turned on the shaft, or as the shaft 
turns; the greater the power being transmitted, the tighter 
the coupling grips the shaft. There are no bolts, screws or 
keys. A hole is provided in the middle of the coupling in 
which a steel pin or handle may be inserted for loosening or 
tightening the coupling when the shafting is at rest. The 
coupling grips the shaft by the wedging action of the roll- 
ers as power is applied. The coupling is a single unit. It 
has a positive grip, slipping being a mechanical impossi- 
bility. It insures perfect alignment. A reducing coupling 
can be used for shafts of different diameters. It entirely 
overcomes the danger of breakage from longitudinal strain 
upon shafting which may be caused by contraction or ex- 
pansion. It requires only the bare hands for attaching it 
to shafting, and can be readily removed after long con- 
tinued use. There are no wearing parts which require 
renewals. Oil and moisture cannot affect it, and no dirt 
or grit can enter. It is of exceptional value in the pre- 
vention of accidents. 

A safety set collar is also on the market which is sim- 
ilar to this coupling, no set screws or tools being needed 
to attach it. 



TRANSMISSION 



153 



This same invention has also been successfully applied 
to pulley bushings. Pulleys and collars of this type have 
all the advantages of the safety coupling above described. 

Set Screws. — All protruding set 
screws, on shafting, countershafting, and 
revolving parts of machinery, should 
be replaced with those of the headless 
type. The day of the protruding set 
screw is passing. No responsible em- 
ployer will permit them in his factory. 
Quite frequently an employee, after 
making repairs or alterations, will place 
a protruding set screw in a collar, in- 
stead of a headless set screw. This 
evil may be eliminated by allowing no 
old style set screws to be issued from the stock room. 
Fig. 29 shows the headless type of set screw with a key 
for screwing it into the collar. These are sold in all sizes, 




Fig. 2S 
Sectional view of 
"Bull-dog" shaft 
coupling. 

Courtesy Automnlic 
Shaft Coupling Co. 




Fig. 29 

Safety set screw with socket wrench. 

Courtesy Bristol Company, Waterbury, Conn. 



and there are a number of other similar t^^pes on the 
market. This t^'pe of set screw does not project beyond 
the face of the collar. It is, therefore, unable to catch 
loose clothing. The headless type of set screw is prefer- 
able to the countersunk type. The hole in the headless 
set screw may be filled in with wax or paraffin to prevent 
rusting. Old style couplings and protruding set screws 
have been the direct cause of an enormous number of fatal 
accidents, and they are a constant menace to life and limb. 



154 



PRACTICAL SAFETY ^lETHODS AXD DEVICES 



Friction Clutches. — When within 8 feet of a floor or 
platform, friction clutches should be completely housed 
with metal or wire mesh hoods. Exposed friction clutches 
of power working machines are especially hazardous. The 




Fig. 30 
Safety, multiple disc, solid friction clutch. The toggle mechanism is com- 
pletely enclosed and the clutch is practically dust-proof. This t\-pe 
of clutch Ls made for use with a pulley on sleeve or as a cut-off coupling. 
This ^-iew shows clutch completely assembled. 

Courtesy Dodge Sales & Engineering Co. 

most modern form of friction clutch is now provided with a 
metal enclosure which guards dangerous revolving parts. 




Fig. 31 

This is an unassembled view of safety friction clutch sho^^Tl in Fig. 30. 

Courtesy Dodge Sales & Engineering Co. 

Bearings. — Bearings should never be covered, but 
should be clearly exposed to view at all times. They should 
be of the self-oiling variety, so that there will be no occa- 
sion for the oiler to go near them when the shafting is in 



TR.\XSMISSIOX 155 

motion. Ring oiling bearings are the best type. They are 
the safest, mo<t efficient, convenient, and reliable. The 
rings should be made of tempered spring steel, and should 
perfectly retain their shape. The rings should revolve 
with the shaft, constantly feeding oil to the bearing in 
regular quantities. Permanent devices are used to return 
the surplus oil to the reservoir, thus using the oil over and 
over again, and insuring a steady supply. This means a 
great saving in oil consumption in a large factory. The 
bottom of the oil reservoir should be flat. This prevents 
the bearing overturning when out of the frame, and dis- 
penses with the depressions for oil rings used in other 
types of ring oiling bearings. Depressions are apt to fill 
with sediment and prevent the free working of the rings. 
With a flat bottom the oil is of the same depth for the 
full length of the reservoir. A heavy oil should never be 
used as it is likely to clog and prevent the free rotation of 
the ring. This is especially true when a chain is used in 
lieu of a ring. The ring oiler is preferable to the chain 
oiler, or to the plain bearing with grease cups. 

Shafting should be frequently inspected to make sure 
that it runs true, that the hangers are not working loose, 
and that the bearings are receiving proper lubrication. 
Hangers should not be spaced too far apart, but should 
be spaced according to the thickness of the shaft, to its 
weight, and to the stresses to which it will be subjected. 
No set rule for spacing bearings can be used, as there are 
several factors to be taken into consideration in each case. 

Pulleys. — Pulleys should be spaced at a slightly greater 
distance from bearings or hangers, or other pulleys (except 
tight and loose pulleys \ than the width of the belt, so 
that in case the belt slips the pulley, it will not become 
wedged between the hanger and the pulley, or between 
two pulleys, thus pulling down the line shafting. If it is 
impracticable to space pulleys farther from a hanger, or 
another pulley, than the width of the belt, the intervening 
space should be guarded in such a way that it will be im- 



156 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

possible for the belting to become wedged, should it slip 
the pulley. This may be done by placing a spool, V 
larger in diameter than the pulley, on the side of the pulley 
adjacent to a hanger or another pulley. 

Pulleys, carrying large, high-speed, transmission belting, 
and also friction clutches, within 2 feet of a hanger, should 
be protected on the nearest side by an angle iron and wire 
mesh guard substantially fastened to the wall or ceiling. 

It is often desirable to cover arms of pulleys and bal- 
ance wheels of power working machines with an inserted 
fiber or sheet metal disc. 

Pulleys on line shafting within 7 feet of the floor or 
platform should be guarded on the under side. 

Pulleys should be a little wider than the width of the 
belt. A frequent inspection of pulleys should be made to 
discover cracks which are likely to develop in the arms 
and rims. When a crack occurs, a piece of the rim may 
be thrown out by centrifugal force, causing a serious acci- 
dent. In the course of inspection, the pulleys should be 
hammer tested to discover cracks, and if found, the pulleys 
should be immediately replaced. Pulleys with pieces 
missing from their arms or rims should never be used. 
Paces of pulleys should be smooth and even. 

Counterweights of idler pulleys should be guarded or 
enclosed. 

Belting. — Vertical or inclined transmission belting 
should be entirely enclosed to a height of 6 feet. Hori- 
zontal belting, within 7 feet of a floor or platform, 
should be protected underneath and on the sides with 
a substantial suspended guard. Belts and pulleys which 
drive power working machines should be protected with 
guards of wire mesh, sheet metal, or perforated metal on 
frames of angle iron. 

The best belts are made from oak tanned leather, 
curried with cod oil and tallow. The flesh side of the 
belt should not be run on the face of the pulley. The 
wear should come on the grain side. The tensile strength 



TRANSMISSION 



157 



of this side is weaker, but the grain side of the belt will 
wear better. If the grain is finally worn off, the belt will 




Fk;. 32 

Sheet metal guards applied to vertical l)elt.s of speeders. 

Courtesy Phoenix Underwear Company. 

not have a tendency to crack on the grain side. Belts 
should be cleaned and dressed at least twice a year. 



I 



158 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Belts should preferably be fastened together by splic- 
ing and cementing, rather than by lacing. Endless belts 
are preferable from the standpoint of durability and 
safety. Metal belt hooks, or metal clamps of any kind, 
should not be used for fastening. If lacing is resorted to, 
rawhide or wire should be used. The holes should be made 



Fig. 33 
Woven wire guards applied to vertical belts of spinning frames. The frame- 
work of guards consists of iron rods. 

Courtesij Norwich Wire Basket Co., Norwich, N. Y. 

with an oval punch, with the longer diameter parallel to 
the sides of the belt. The edge of the holes should not 
be nearer than J" from the sides, nor less than V from the 
ends of the belt. On large belts, these distances should 
be even greater. At least two rows of holes should be 
punched and staggered. The second row should not be 
less than If" from the end of the belt. The lacing should 
be started at the center, care being taken to keep the ends- 



TRANSMISSION 



159 



of the belt exactly in line. Both sides should be laced 
with equal tightness. The lacing should not be crossed 
on the side that runs next to the face of the pulley. Loose 



if 

o o 






E.3 



S- ^ 



5 P 



? s- 



■ 3 

P ^. 

(W p 

if 

c 



p' 

o 52 

-t c 




ends of belting should be neatly trimmed off close to the 
belt. Belts should never be spliced or tightened while 
any part of the machinery to which they are attached is 
in motion. If belts are to be made endless, they should 



160 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



be put on with the ends drawn together by clamps. If 
the belt is made endless in the factory, it should never be 
run upon the pulleys, as the irregular strain may spring 




IS 



CO 
bX) 



'H ^ =3 
T3 C ^ 






Moo 






as 



the belt. One shaft should be lifted out, the belt being placed 

on the two pulleys, and the shaft then forced back into place. 

Belts should never be unduly tight as they will cause 

broken pulleys, hot boxes, or result in the breaking of the 



TRANSMISSION 161 

belt itself. They should be sufficiently slack to move 
with a loose undulating vibration on the returning side. 
No more strain should be imposed than is necessary to 
transmit the power. There should be a gentle sag in the 
belt when it is in motion, and the distance between shaft- 
ing should be enough to allow such a sag. A good average 
is 15 feet for narrow belts, 25 feet for larger belts, and 25 
to 30 feet for main belts on very large pulleys. If too 
great a distance is attempted, the belt will have an unsteady 
flapping motion, which will quickly destroy both belt and 
machinery, causing serious injury to nearby workmen. 

If possible to avoid it, connected shafts should not be 
placed one directly over the other. In such a case, the 
belt would have to be kept very tight to perform the 
work. It is desirable to have the belting tilt at a consid- 
erable angle from the vertical, at least 45 degrees where 
possible. It is also advisable to so locate shafting and 
machinery that the belts will run off a shaft in opposite 
directions. This relieves the bearings from undue friction 
which would result if the belts should all pull one way on 
the shaft. Belts pulling in opposite directions should be 
placed as near each other as practicable. Belts pulling in 
the same direction should be widely separated. If pos- 
sible, machinery should be so placed that the direction of 
the belt motion will be from the top of the driving to the 
top of the driven pulle3\ In this case, the sag will increase 
the arc of contact. The motion of driving should run with, 
and not against, the lap of the belts. 

Where necessary, idler pulleys should be applied to the 
slack side of the belting near the smaller pulley. 

Ordinarily, it is better to gear a mill with small belts 
and pulleys running at high speeds, rather than with large 
belts and pulleys running at slow speeds. A mill thus 
geared is usually more efficient, and the operating cost is 
less. 

Belts should be protected against water, exhaust steam, 
and moisture. Otherwise, waterproof dressing should be 



162 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

applied. Oil should not be allowed to drip on belts, as 
it destroys the leather. Belting cannot safely stand a 
higher temperature than 130 degrees F. 

Belts usually weaken and break near the lacing. They 
should be periodically inspected. If defects are found, the 
belts should be at once repaired or replaced. 

RULES FOR BELTING 

1. Never crawl through, over or under a belt. 

2. Never shift a belt by hand. See that a suitable, permanent belt shifter 
is installed. 

3. Never attempt to repair, dress or lace a belt, while the machinery is in 
motion. First stop the machinery. 

4. Never grasp belts to start or stop a machine. 

5. Never allow a belt to rest on a revolving shaft. The belt may become 
tangled with someone or something, causing a serious accident. A belt perch 
should be provided to receive the belt, when it is removed from the puUej'. 

6. Never place a pulley nearer to a shaft hanger, or another pulley, than by 
a distance a little greater than the width of the belt. 

7. If it is impracticable to do this, place a guard in the intervening space 
between the pulleys, or pulley and hanger, to prevent the belt from becoming 
wedged and tearing down the shafting, in case it springs off the pulley. 

8. When it becomes necessary to place a belt upon an overhead pulley, use 
a substantial belt pole provided with a belt perch or hook at the end. The pole 
should be nearly the length of the distance between the shaft and the floor. This 
will necessitate keeping the pole at the side of the workman, instead of in front 
of him, which is dangerous. A short belt pole is a source of danger. 

9. When the belt is too large to be placed upon an overhead pulley by a 
hooked belt pole, it becomes necessary to place it on by hand, while standing on 
a ladder. The ladder should be placed on the side of the pulley opposite the belt. 
This position facilitates the operation, and decreases the danger of the workman 
being caught and drawn over the shaft. The operation is at best a dangerous 
one, and should be avoided wherever possible. 

10. In unshipping belts, a belt should always be thrown off the "running off " 
side of the driving, and not of the driven pulley. 

11. Never run belts under excessive tension, nor so loose that they flap. 
Horizontal, or slightly inclined belting, should have a smooth undulating motion. 

12. Make frequent inspections of all belting, especially near the lacing, as 
this part of the belt is most susceptible to wear, and most likely to crack at this 
point. 

Gears. — All gears should be completely encased, or 
otherwise guarded, regardless of their size or location in 
the factory. It is just as important to cover overhead 
gears as it is to remove protruding set screws in overhead 



TRAXSMLS810X 163 

shafting. Workmen are apt to climb upon machines or 
stepladders to make repairs or oil machinery in motion, 
and then be caught in exposed gearing. 

If gears are guarded with strap iron, it should conform 
to the shape of the gears, extending completely around 
the exposed parts. The strap iron should extend over on 
the edges to form side flanges, thus enclosing the gears to 
the roots of the teeth. Gear guards should be removable 
to facilitate oiling and cleaning, but care should be taken to 
replace the guards before the machine is again placed in 
operation. 

Ropes, Chains, and Sprockets. — The standards used 
in guarding belts should also be applied to the guarding 
of ropes. 

Care should be taken to completely guard all chains 
and sprockets on power working machines. 

Power Control. — Some means should be provided for 
quickly shutting off the power in each room or depart- 
ment. This ma}^ take the form of an automatic engine 
stop with push buttons located in different parts of the 
factory, a switch, a tight and loose pulley, a friction clutch, 
or a belt shifter and idler. An electric push button system 
to signal the engineer to stop the engine in an emergency 
may also be used. 

Switches or push buttons, placed about the factory, may 
be electrically connected to a motor stop system, in order 
that a motor may be quickly stopped in case of accident. 

Where tight and loose pulleys are used, the loose 
pulley should be so mounted that it would be impossible 
for it to engage the shaft or produce side friction on the 
adjacent rim of the tight pulley, thus accidentally starting 
the machinery. 

A belt shifter and idler is shown in Fig. 36. This is a 
device for shifting a belt from a driving pulley to the 
roller idler, where it rests until again required for the 
transmission of power. The idler consists of a fixed hanger, 
essentially one piece, having a removable segment or center 



164 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

piece, so opening that the hanger may be placed around 
a shaft. The hanger has radial elongated slots for the 
reception of a circular series of belt sustaining rollers. The 
radial slots permit a limited adjustment of the rollers to 
conform to pulleys, also enabling the rollers to be secured 
in different slots, or adjusted to conform to the position 
or angle of the belt. The rollers are journaled upon studs, 
and are secured to the hanger by lock nuts. The rolls 
are slightly tapered toward the pulley to facilitate the 
sliding action of the belt to and from the pulley. The 
number of rollers required depends upon the diameter of 
the pulley. 

The shifter is a separate segment bolted to the hanger 
at the required angle to accomplish its purpose. It con- 
sists of two studs on rods, two sleeves sliding lengthwise 
on the rods, a pair of adjustable belt shifting arms, and 
a shifting lever. 

This device takes the place of, and is an important 
improvement over, the tight and loose pulley. When the 
belt is shifted on the idler, it remains stationary. This 
not only saves a large amount of wear, where the belt 
would be constantly running on the loose pulley, but it 
also tends to reduce accidents, as the belt does not revolve 
except when driving a power working machine. Where 
machines are operated only a part of the time, it also 
saves a considerable amount of power. It is impossible 
for the belt to shift from the idler to the driving pulley of 
its own accord. It is therefore an excellent safeguard 
against the unexpected starting of a dangerous machine. 

On the left of Fig. 36, the belt is shown remaining 
stationary on the idler, with the main shaft revolving. 
On the right the idler is shown when relieved of the belt, 
the belt revolving on the driving pulley with the shafting. 

Every power working machine should be equipped with 
an approved starting and stopping device in the form 
of a switch, friction clutch, tight and loose pulley, or belt 
idler and shifter. It has been conclusively proven that 



THAXSMISSIOX 



165 




Fig. 36 
Safety belt idler and shifter, showing punch press in operation with balance 

of machinery idle. 

Courtesy F. A. CarKon, S/jnicusr, X. Y. 



166 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

belts of any size are capable of being readily shifted if 
equipped with an approved belt shifter. Belts should not 
be shifted by hand or foot. 

Handles of belt shifters should hang in a vertical posi- 
tion when on the loose pulley. This tends to reduce the 
possibility of the belt accidentally shifting to the tight 
pulley by a gravity leverage action on a handle which is 
not in the vertical position. In addition, the handle should 
be designed to lock on and off position by springing into 
grooved sockets in a wooden or metal horizontal bar, or 
by some other mechanical means. Many accidents result 
from the creeping of a belt from a loose pulley back upon 
a tight pulley, thus unexpectedly starting a machine. 



CHAPTER XII 

MACHINE TOOLS 

For this chapter, several widely used machine tools 
have been selected for which safeguards will be described 
and illustrated. The principles of safeguarding herein set 
forth should be similarly applied to other machines. 

Lathes. — All powxr driven gears should be completely 
encased with metal hoods or covers. (Fig. 37.) These 
guards should be made in one casting, and should be 
easily removable for changing and oiling the gears. 

Safety cone belt shifters should be installed to elimi- 
nate the necessity of shifting the belt by hand. These 
cone belt shifters should also be applied to shapers, milling 
machines, drill presses, slotters, bolt cutters, boring mills, 
pipe machines, and other machines which are driven by 
means of cone step pulleys. These shifters not only pro- 
vide a safe means of shifting a belt on a cone pulley, but 
they save a considerable amount of time which would 
otherwise be consumed in wrestling with a belt which must 
be shifted by hand. Arms and wrists are often broken, 
and hands and fingers slashed, in attempting to shift cone 
pulley belts by hand. The use of a belt shifter also allows 
a guard of angle iron and wire mesh to be placed about 
the belt and pulley, a slot being left in the wire mesh for 
the shifter handle. 

The shifting device consists of two relatively fixed sec- 
tions of rack, one mounted on the head stock, the other 
on the countershaft. A belt shifting bracket is mounted 
on each of these racks and operated by means of a pinion 
with two teeth, w^hich engages the rack and moves the two 
brackets in the same direction, one in advance of the 



168 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



other. The rack teeth are spaced one-half the width of 
the cone step, so that one complete revolution of the 



r 




Fig. 37 

Safety cone belt shifter. 

Courtesy R. K. Le Blond Machine Tool Co. 

pinion moves the shifter bracket the full width of the cone 
step. A common crank, conveniently located, operates 
both pinions through a pair of miter gears and a telescopic 



MACHINE TOOLS 



169 



shaft, adjustable within certain limits for the height of 
the ceiUng. One shifter always acts one half-revolution 
of the crank ahead of the other. The first half-revolu- 
tion moves the belt from a larger to a smaller pulley on 
one of the shafts, and the next half-revolution moves the 
belt upon a larger pulley on the other shaft. When run- 
ning, the crank always assumes the same position, con- 
venient to grasp, the belt being locked against further 
movement except by turning the crank. A stop is pro- 




FiG. 38 

Chip guard for lathe. 

Courtesy Barcy-Nichohon Co., Detroit. 

vided in both directions to prevent the belt being thrown 
entirely off the cone. With this device, the belt is longer 
lived, as the edges cannot curl up against the step of the 
cone. For this reason, wider belts may be used, giving 
greater power. 

Fig. 38 shows a chip guard for a lathe in one of its 
many positions. These guards may also be used on hand- 
fed screw machines, on brass-work, and on other machines 
where metal chips are apt to fly from stock. The rod 
supports a removable glass window, and the guard is 
adjustable in each direction. Magnifying glass may be used 



170 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 




Fig. 39 

Safety lathe dogs. 

Courtesy Sargent Company, Chicago. 



if desired. This guard enables the operator to watch the 
work closely without danger of flying chips lodging in his 
eyes. The clamp is also adjustable to fit different size 
toolposts. Similar guards may also be applied to shapers. 

Safety lathe dogs 
should replace those 
of the old fashioned 
type. There are sev- 
eral safety types now 
on the market, one of 
which is shown in Fig. 
39. The set screw 
should be of the head- 
less variety, adjusted 
by means of a socket 
wrench; or, in case an 
ordinary set screw is used, it should be guarded by an 
outer rib forming a part of the dog itself. Accidents often 
happen where protruding unguarded set screws are used 
on lathe dogs, as the set screw may easily catch a loose 
or torn sleeve or jumper with disastrous results to the 
operator. 

Chuck guards may also be used to advantage to cover 
projecting revolving parts which might otherwise catch 
the operator's clothing. 

Operators should be instructed in the correct method 
of filing on a lathe, keeping the nearest arm well away 
from the revolving dog and chuck. Sleeves should be 
rolled up when working around these dangerous revolving 
parts of machines. 

Planers. ■ — A horizontal sheet metal cover should be 
placed upon the ribs of the bed of all planers. (Fig. 40.) 
This should cover the spaces between the ribs of the bed, 
thereby preventing anyone's hand or arm being caught 
between the ribs of the frame and the reciprocating car- 
riage. If not so guarded, workmen frequently keep tools 
in the spaces between the ribs of the bed, or they may be 



MACHINE TOOLS 



171 



accidentally dropped there. In reaching for these tools, 
workmen occasionally lose a hand or an arm by the shear- 
ing action between the reciprocating carriage and a rib of 
the bed. Workmen might also slip in passing by the end 
of a planer bed, and in thrusting out a hand to avoid a 
fall, it might be caught and crushed in the manner de- 




FiG. 40 
Properly safeguarded planer. 
Courtesy Crosby Cotnpany, Buffalo. 



scribed. This metal cover eliminates any possibility of a 
workman being injured in this way. 

Where a planer is operating with a long stroke, and the 
carriage at its farthest point approaches close to a fixed 
obstruction, such as a wall, the passageway between the 
obstruction and the bed of the planer should be guarded, 
preventing anyone being crushed at this point. 

The belts and pulle3^s, and the gears of planers should 
be completely encased. Counterweights of planers, boring 
mills, drill presses, etc., should also be encased to the 
floor line, so that no one will be injured in case the 
supporting chain or rope should break. 



172 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Shapers. — Belts and pulleys on shapers should be 
completely encased to a height of 6 feet. A safety cone 




L _„__- Mi^^m^.^^ i 

Fig. 41 

Properly safeguarded drill press. 

Courtesy Crosby Company, Buffalo. 

belt shifter should be used for shifting the belt on the cone 
pulleys. A chip guard, similar to that described for lathes 
may also be advantageously applied to shapers. 



]MACHIXI-: TOOLS 



173 



Drill Presses. All power driven gears, including the 
bevel gears, should be completely encased. Spindles should 
be encased with sheet metal tubes. A safety cone belt 
shifter should be provided. Belts and pulleys should be 
guarded to a height of 6 feet. (Fig. 41.) Set screws in the 
chucks of drill })resses should be of the headless type and 
should not protrude be3^ond the surface of the chuck. 




Fig. 42 
Adjustable guard for milling machine cutter. Hood D is adjusted vertically 

by screw C. 

Courtesy Easlman Kodak Company. 



Milling Machines. — All power driven gears should be 
completely encased. Suitable guards should be provided 
for the cutters. (Fig. 42.) Safet}^ cone belt shifters should 
be used. Belts and pulleys should be guarded to a height 
of 6 feet. 

Punching and Stamping Presses. — Guards should be 
installed on all punching and stamping presses at the 
point of operation wherever their use is practicable in con- 



174 



PRACTICAL SAFETY AIETHODS AND DEVICES 



nection with the operation to be performed. A great deal 
of attention has been devoted to safeguarding these 
machines, and many practical guards have been devised 
which are suited to various kinds of punching and stamp- 











J 


9^1 


1 


IH^^^^^^BIk^ 



Fig. 43 

Automatic punch press guard. 

Courtesy Yale & Towne Mfg. Co. 



ing operations, a few of which will be described and 
illustrated. 

Fig. 43 illustrates one type of guard. The operator is 
shown as just having placed the material to be stamped 
in the nest, being about to press the treadle which will 
release the clutch. If the resistance of the hand against 



MACHINE TOOLS 



/o 



the felt pad is greater than the pressure of the foot upon 
the treadle, the clutch cannot be released. Just as soon 
as the pressure upon the treadle becomes greater, however, 




Fig. 44 

Punch press with obstruction guards for blanking 

operation. 

Courtesy Eastman Kodak Company. 

the operator's hand will be pushed out from under the 
dies, releasing the clutch. This motion can be made to 
either the right or left by adjusting the guard accordingly. 
Raw material may be placed on either side of the operator. 
Instead of having a waste motion to overcome, he is aided 
in the direction of the next productive motion. 



176 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Fig. 44 shows a press guard for blanking operations, 
consisting of guards or stops ''A" which are adjustable 
both horizontally and vertically by clamps ''B." The 




Fig. 45 
Duplex punch press guard. Wing shields prevent the 
operator from accidentally placing his fingers under- 
neath the dies. Positive and cautionary guards 
operate automatically. 

Courtesy Eastman Kodak Company. 

stops ''A" prevent the operator from accidentally placing 
his fingers under the dies. 

Fig. 45 illustrates another type of press guard. This 
consists of two wings as shown, which reciprocate back 



MACHINE TOOLS 177 

and forth. Before the clutch can be released, the outer 
wing swings downward in front of the dies, sweeping aside 
the hand of the operator. As the die moves upward again, 
the rear wing sweeps downward, the outer wing returning 
to position. This prevents the operator's hand from get- 
ting under the dies. Both wings return to position before 
the next operation. In case the machine should repeat 
unexpectedly, there would be one wing in front of the 
dies, so that the operator cannot accidentally injure his 
hands. 

Operators should be instructed in the proper method 
of placing material under the dies. The fingers should not 
be placed on top of a piece directly underneath the die. 
The correct way is to hold the piece at the sides, if pos- 
sible, keeping the fingers out from under the die. In blank- 
ing operations, a mechanical roller feed should be used where 
possible, hand feeding being abolished. The material may 
be removed by mechanical means or by gravity. Slide 
or disc feeds may be used for small work. 

Balance wheels, pulleys and belts should be completely 
guarded to a height of at least 6 feet. Gears should be 
complete!}' encased. Where balance wheels cannot be en- 
closed, a disc of fiber or metal should be used to cover 
the spokes of the wheel. 

All punching and stamping presses, shears, cutting 
machines, knife presses, and similar machines should be 
equipped with a safety device which will prevent them 
from repeating unexpectedly. There are several types of 
tripping mechanisms which require positive action on the 
part of the operator before the machine can repeat an 
operation. 

Shears. — Fig. 46 shows a substantial, rigid, tinseled 
guard for a metal power shear. The bar rests in 
sockets on each side of the frame. The concave portions 
of the guard make it possible to place the hands very 
near the blade, but at the same time prevent the fingers 
from being cut. 



I 



178 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Another safety device, which is commonly used on 
shears and cutting presses, consists of a handle on each 
side of the operator, connected to the tripping mechanism. 



1 la^^^^BHM 


1 

- 


I 




1 


M 


'A^^^^k^^ 


1 


1 


1 

mm 


^^^^K^^ -M 



Fig. 46 

Metal shear with steel tinseled guard at operating point. 

Courtesy Eastman Kodak Company. 

In order to trip the machine, the operator must pull both 
handles at the same time. This requires the use of both 
hands at the same instant, making it impossible for them 
to be near the blade. 



1 



CHAPTER XIII 

GRINDING MACHINERY 

The principal causes of rupture of emery wheels are 
due to overspeeding, improper mounting, loose bearings, 
unrelieved and too small flanges, side blows from heavy 
castings, unbalanced and defective wheels, and to exces- 
sive vibration. Provision should be made for preventing 
the use of unsafe speeds or wheels with too large diameter. 
The supervision of emery wheels should be entrusted to a 
competent mechanic. Each wheel should be carefully 
examined and tested before being mounted. Each wheel 
should be provided with a substantial hood, capable of 
retaining parts in case of breakage. This hood should be 
connected to an efficient dust-arresting system. In no 
case, should operators be allowed to grind without wearing 
protection goggles. 

Dust-Removing Systems. — Grinding rooms should be 
well ventilated and lighted. An efficient dust-arresting 
system should be installed. This will lessen the wear on 
machinery, as well as give proper protection to the work- 
men. If emery dust is breathed into the lungs, or gets 
into the eyes, it quickly causes inflammation. Serious 
results then follow. For this reason, the dust should be 
effectively removed by some approved s^^stem. 

Mounting. — The stands of emery wheels should be 
sufhcienth^ heavy and securely fastened to substantial 
foundations to prevent vibration. Spindles should be 
large enough to prevent springing from heavy pressure 
work. The boxes should be long enough to prevent heating 
and excessive wear. They should be well oiled, so that the 
arbor will not become heated and expanded, causing rup- 



180 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



ture of the wheel. Wheels should not be loose on spindles, 
nor should they be forced on. They should fit snugly 
without binding. Wheels should run true and steady. If 
vibration is noticed, the wheels and journals may need 
truing up, or the journals may need re-babbitting. Wheels 
should be carefully unpacked and safely stored. They 
should be kept absolutely free from dampness. They should 
always be tested before mounting by tapping them 
lightly with a small hammer to detect cracks. If a wheel 

is cracked, it will 
not ring true when 
tapped with a ham- 
mer. The inner 
flange should be 
keyed or shrunk on 
the spindle. It 
should never be 
loose. Flanges 
should be at least | 
the diameter of the 
wheel. Wheels 
should never be held 
by a nut alone on 
the outer side. A 
proper size flange 
should be used. A 
nut is apt to crawl, causing an accident. Flanges should 
be relieved, with a true circumferential bearing on the 
wheel at the outer edge of the flanges. Unrelieved flanges 
do not properly distribute the pressure and are therefore 
unsafe. Fig. 47 shows the correct and incorrect methods 
of mounting an emery wheel. 

Compressible washers of pulp or rubber, slightly larger 
than the flanges, should be placed between the wheel and 
the flanges. These washers evenly distribute the pressure 
when the flanges are tightened. 

The hole in the wheel should be bushed .005" large 




Fig. 47 

Correct and incorrect methods of mounting emery 

wheels. 

Courtesy Norton Comjpany. 



GRIXDIXC; MA(;inXKRY 181 

over standard size spindles. This permits the wheel to 
slide on the spindle without cramping, thus insuring a 
good fit, not only on the spindle, but against the inside 
flange as well. 

Flanges should only be tightened enough to firmly hold 
the wheel, avoiding any unnecessary strain. 

The following sizes of spindles are recommended, except 
where the grinding wheels are extra thick, in which case 
the}' should be larger. 





Wheel 




. 


Di 


iametcr of Spindle 


6" in dianu'tcr 


and less 




r' 


8" '' 










f" 


10" " 










V 


12" " 










1 " 


14" " 










U" 


16" " 










U" 


18 "to 20" 










If" 


20 "to 24" 










2 " 


24 " and 1: 


irgor 








2V'to3" 



Beveled, shoulder and ring flanges have more or less 
merit, but the wheel should also be surrounded by a sub- 
stantial protection hood, as flanges do not afford protec- 
tion from that part of the wheel outside of the flange in 
case of breaking. With the beveled type, a good fit of 
the beveled wheel and flanges is essential. These flanges 
should be relieved in all cases. Beveled wheels are 
impracticable when grinding into a shoulder or into a 
slot. Shoulder and ring flanges are designed to allow the use 
of wheels with straight sides. The maximum amount of 
wheel that should project beyond any type of protection 
flange is 2". This necessitates a frequent change to flanges 
of smaller diameter. 

Flanges on both sides of a wheel should alwaA's be of 
the same diameter. The set of the largest diameter should 
be used on the full size wheel. 

Tool rests should be kept in close adjustment to the 
wheel, so that the piece cannot be caught between the 
wheel and the tool rest. If this should happen, the wedg- 



182 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



ing action would probably cause the wheel to break with 
disastrous results. A chain hoist should be used to sup- 
port a heavy casting when grinding. This will enable the 
operator to safely hold the casting against the wheel, avoid- 
ing dangerous side blows which might rupture the wheel. 
Special tables or rests may also be used for this purpose. 

Speed. — As a wheel wears, the speed should be in- 
creased in order to maintain the same surface rate and to 







^^ 



n 



Fig. 48 
Safety stops to prevent use of oversize wheels. 

Courtesy Norton Company. 

preserve uniform conditions in grinding. Usually, when a 
wheel is nearly worn out, the spindle is running at its 
highest speed. If a thoughtless operator takes off the stub 
of an old wheel and puts on a new wheel without readjust- 
ing the belts, an accident from overspeeding is likely to 
occur. 

Fig. 48 illustrates the method of using safety stops to 
prevent the use of oversize wheels. These are useful in 
shops where, instead of shifting the belt, two or three 



GRIXDIXG MACHINERY 183 

sizes of machines are used which run at different speeds. 
When a wheel is worn down to a certain diameter, it should 
be changed to a spindle on another machine which runs at 
a higher speed. This device prevents the use of wheels of 
over a fixed diameter. 

In case emery wheels are driven by variable speed 
motors, in lieu of constant speed motors, a speed limit 
device should be used. This should be automatically 
dependent upon the diameter of the wheel. 

Operators should not be allowed to grind until the man 
in charge makes sure that the wheels are running at a 
safe speed. The belt should be so locked that the speed 
cannot be changed by the operator. Every morning, the 
foreman of the grinding department, or his assistant, 
should carefully examine each grinding machine to see 
that the bearings are tight and well oiled, and that the 
wheels are in good condition. He should test and examine 
every wheel before it is placed on an arbor. Competent 
workmen should be detailed to mount and true grinding 
wheels, adjust rests, and regulate the speed. 

The following table, compiled by The Norton Company, 
gives a tabulation of revolutions per minute in relation to 
surface speeds: 



184 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 



Table of Grinding Wheel Speeds 







Rev. per min. for 


Rev. per min. for 


Rev. per min. for 


Diameter Wheel 


Millimeters 


surface speed of 
4,000 feet or 


surface speed of 
5,000 feet or 


surface speed of 
6,000 ft. or 






1,200 meters 


1,500 meters 


1,800 meters 


1 inch 


about 25 


15,279 


19,099 


22,918 


2 " 


50 


7,639 


9,549 


11,459 


3 " 


75 


5,093 


6,363 


7,639 


4 " 


100 


3,820 


4,775 


.5,730 


5 " 


123 


3,056 


3,820 


4,584 


6 " 


150 


2,546 


3,183 


3,820 


7 " 


175 


2,183 


2,728 


3,274 


8 " 


200 


1,910 


2,387 


2,865 


10 " 


250 


1,528 


1,910 


2,292 


12 " 


305 


1,273 


1,592 


1,910 


14 " 


355 


1,091 


1,364 


1,637 


16 - 


405 


955 


1,194 


1,432 


18 " 


455 


849 


1,061 


1,273 


20 " 


505 


764 


955 


1,146 


22 '' 


" 555 


694 


868 


1,042 


24 " 


610 


637 


796 


955 


26 " 


660 


586 


783 


879 


28 " 


710 


546 


683 


819 


30 " 


760 


509 


637 


764 


32 " 


810 


477 


596 


716 


34 '' 


860 


449 


531 


674 


36 '' 


910 


424 


531 


637 


38 " 


965 


402 


503 


603 


40 " 


" 1,005 


382 


478 


573 


42 " 


" 1,065 


334 


455 


546 


44 " 


" 1,115 


347 


434 


521 


46 " 


" 1,165 


332 


415 


498 


48 " 


" 1,220 


318 


397 


477 


50 " 


" 1,270 


308 


383 


459 


52 " 


" 1,320 


294 


369 


441 


54 " 


'' 1,370 


283 


354 


425 


56 " 


" 1,420 


273 


341 


410 


58 " 


" 1,470 


264 


330 


396 


60 " 


" 1,520 


255 


319 


383 



The r. p. m. at which wheels are run is dependent 
on conditions and style of machine and the work to be 
ground. 

Wheels are run in actual practice from 4,000 to 6,000 
feet per minute; in some instances as high as 7,500. 

Grinding wheels should be stored in a dry place. A 
wheel which is used for wet grinding should not be left 



GRINDING IMACHINERY 



185 



over night partly immersed in water, as the wheel would 
then become decidedl}' unbalanced, and hence dangerous. 

A notice should be hung above grinding wheels giving 
the machine number, spindle revolutions per minute, and 
the maximum safe diameter of wheel. Wheels should be 
kept properly dressed and in good condition. A guarded 
dressing tool should be used for this work. Tachometers 
should be kept in a handy place for use in determining 
the number of revolu- 
tions per minute in 
testing for safe speeds. 

Wheels which are 
made with a bond of 
a high tensile strength, 
and those which are 
made of a fine grain, 
have a higher factor 
of safety than soft 
and coarse wheels of 
equal size. 

Hoods and Guards. 
— All emery wheels 
should be provided 
with a substantial 
steel hood, or a steel 
strap, to pre\'ent 
broken pieces from 
flying in case the wheel breaks, 
used as it is unreliable. 

Fig. 50 shows grinding wheels thoroughly equipped with 
a substantial retaining steel hood which also serves as a 
dust arrester, being connected to an efficient exhaust sys- 
tem. The hoods are provided with adjustable glass guards 
to prevent particles and dust from flying into the eyes of 
the operator. Note the guard for the belt and spindle 
pulley. 

All belts and pulleys of emery wheels should be guarded, 




Fic. 49 
Most approved form of adjusta])le, steel, re- 
taining and exhaust hood for emery wheels. 

Courtesy Norton Company. 



Cast iron should not be 



186 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

with either sheet metal or wire mesh, attached to an angle 
iron frame. 

All operators should be required to wear suitable goggles. 




Fid. 50 
Adequato protection for (nnory wheels. Steel exhaust 
hoods, glass eye i)rotectors, and sheet metal 
belt guard. 

Courtesy Norton Cornpany. 



Respirators should be provided where dust is of a poisonous 
nature. 

All buffing and polishing wheels should be equipped 
with hoods and an efficient exhaust system to remove all 
dust. 

The arbor ends of all grinding, buffing and polishing 



GRIXDIXC MACHIXKRY 



187 



wheels should be so covered tluit loose or torn clothing 
cannot become caught and wound on the exposed end of 
the arbor. 

Observations. — As a result of extensive tests and 




i^^^^ 






\ 


o— - 


j 

.1 



Fig. 51 
Strong stool hand for emery wheel. Used when lioods 
would interfere with side grinding. Band is amply 
strong to retain parts in case of breakage. 

Courtesy Norton Company. 

experiments on emery wheels by The Norton Company, 
the following facts have been established: 



1. The tests conducted and the mathematical deductions arrived at show 
that protection hoods provide greater safety than do safety flanges. 

2. The protection offered by any given taper decreases with decreased 
diameter of the wheel. To provide equal safety on all sizes of wheels would 
require, therefore, a graduated difference in taper. 

3. A hood with an adjustable tongue furnishes equal protection for a wide 
range in the diameter of the wheel. 

4. Second to safety, the cost of operating a given grinding machine is of 
vital interest. In this respect, adjustable hoods have the better of the argument, 
for, as the wheel wears, protection flanges must be frequently changed. Such 
change involves the removal and remounting of both flanges and the wheel, 
whereas, in the case of an adjustal)le hood, the change would merely involve the 
set screw adjustment. 



188 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

5. To provide adequate protection for wheels 3" thick and over, the thick- 
ness (hence the weight) of flanges would have to be increased beyond that of any 
now on the market. This would mean additional momentum to the revolving 
spindle, which in turn would require greater rigidity and strength than is to be 
found in the majority of present day grinding machines. 

6. Since the face of a tapered wheel becomes wider as the diameter in- 
creases, serious inconvenience is caused in all grinding where the wheel must 
work in a slot. 

7. Tapered wheels do not permit the grinding of right angle shoulders as 
do straight wheels. 

8. Laws in most every country require the removal of dust from grinding. 
This requires the use of a hood. If a hood must be used, it might as well be strong 
enough to offer protection in case the wheel should break. 

9. A proper hood offers complete protection. Protection flanges cannot 
offer this complete protection, but in instances where a hood would interfere 
with the proper use of the wheel, flanges offer the next best method of protection. 



CHAPTER XIV 

WOODWORKING MACHINERY 

WooDWORKixG machinery is exceptionalh' hazardous. 
It should, therefore, receive special attention. Every 
effort should be made to i)rovide adequate and effective 
guards for this class of machiner3\ Even when properly 
safeguarded, woodworking machines are always a source 
of danger for the reason that they cannot be made entirely 
''fool-proof." Automatic self-feeding devices have been 
successfully a^oplied to some of the machines with good 
results. Where these devices are used, most of the danger 
is eliminated. It is, however, impossible to use self- 
feeding devices for man}^ operations. Skilled workers, who 
have gained long experience in the operation of wood- 
working machinery, are by no means exempt from danger. 
^Nlany, who have worked on these machines for a lifetime, 
become finally injured. A thoughtless and careless move- 
ment, or the lack of close attention to the work for a frac- 
tion of a second, may result in the loss of several fingers 
or a hand. 

This class of machinery is operated at high speeds. It 
is thus important to guard all belts, puUe^^s, sprockets, and 
gears in addition to providing suitable guards at the point 
of operation. Wooden flooring becomes ver}^ slippery in a 
carpenter shop, therefore, it is desirable to provide non- 
slip mats for the operators to stand upon. For this pur- 
pose, corrugated rubber matting or other material may 
be used. The mats should be cemented to the floor to 
prevent the corners from curling. As soon as mats become 
worn or cut, they should be replaced. 

Circular Saws. — Fig. 52 shows an improved type of 
automatic saw guard. The hood is made of aluminum to 



190 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



secure the lightest weight consistent with strength. The 
front of the hood is open to permit a full view of the 
blade when matching or cutting off to a line. The hood is 
free to travel either up or down on hardened rollers in 
the slot of the spreader. The spreader is made of saw 
steel to give the necessary rigidity. There are no obstruc- 
tions overhead or at the side of the table. A narrow strip 
can be cut while the guard is giving full protection by 




Fig. 52 

Automatic circular saw guard. 

Courtesy Surty Guard Company, Chicago. 



placing a piece of the same thickness between the material 
and the guide, thus keeping the guide farther away from 
the saw. The supporting spreader prevents material from 
binding the saw. It also prevents ends from getting on 
the back of the saw when cutting off. A dog, attached to 
a side of the hood near the rear, prevents a '' kick-back '^ 
of material in case it becomes caught by the saw. The 
guard is automatic and does not interfere with the work 
of the operator, but, at the same time, affords ample 
protection. 



WOODWORKING MACHINERY 



191 



Fig. 53 shows another type of guard which is supported 
from overhead, securely stayed by means of rods and 
turnbuckles. The hood is made of aluminum to make the 
guard as light as possible. The stock, which is attached to 
the hood, slides up and down on rollers within the sleeve. 
This guard is adjustable both horizontally and vertically, 
and is automatic. It may be easily shoved aside for special 
work. The hood is also provided with a dog to prevent 
^'kick-backs." As a piece of wooden stock is shoved against 
the buffers the hood 
is a u t o m a t i c a 1 1 3^ 
shoved upward for 
the necessary dis- 
tance to allow the 
stock to be sawed, 
according to the 
thickness of the piece, 
the method of opera- 
tion being very simi- 
lar to that of the 
guard previously de- 
scribed. 

The gauge or guide 
of a saw table should 
be low enough to al- 
low the operator the safe use of his hand between the 
saw and the guide. If the guide is too high for narrow 
work, a push stick should be used to shove the piece 
through, thus keeping the hand from the danger zone. 
(Fig. 54.) The saw table should be provided with a 
device which will permit changing from a low gauge to 
a high gauge, or vice versa, to suit the requirements of 
the work. The gauge should never be adjusted while the 
saw is running. The height of the saw above the table 
top should be adapted to the thickness of the material to 
be sawed. The teeth of the blade should protrude above 
the top of the table no farther than is necessary. If there 




Fig. 53 

Suspended automatic saw guard. 

Courtesy Lockhart-H odge Co., Inc., Buffalo. 



192 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



is any evidence of cramping when sawing a piece, the 
operator should immediately place a strong grip on the 
piece to withdraw it. At the same time the saw should 
be quickly stopped. For this purpose a belt shifter should be 
so arranged that it can be operated with ease by a move- 
ment of the foot or leg of the sawyer, thus allowing him the 
use of both hands in this case. The relative direction of 
pushing a lever, and the position of the lever, should be 





Fig. 54 
Push stick for narrow work on circular saw and automatic guard for saw. 



the same for all saws in the factory, so that in an emer- 
gency, an operator will not be at a loss to know exactly 
what move to make to stop a saw. An operator should 
have a clear view of the blade when sawing material. Self- 
feeding devices should be used where possible, as they 
greatly diminish the danger of injury to an operator. 

Swing Cut-off Saws. — The belt and pulley should be 
completely guarded to a height of 6 feet from the floor 
level. (Fig. 55.) A metal guard should completely cover 



WOODWOKKIXd MA(4I1X1:KY 



193 



the upper half of the blade. The handle .should be placed 
away from the metal guard for the .saw, so that it will be 
umiecessarv for the operator to place his hand near the 



1 


ft 


1 qx 1 1 


1 


I ,' .;' '^p^'^ 


1 '» ^^^n 




7 


I1V^<.I 


5?' 


4 


HKiBBi^H^^^ 


iff! 


^Sr 



Fig. 55 
Properly guarded swing cut-off saw. Metal hood for 
saw, limit chain to prevent saw from swinging out- 
ward beyond edge of bench, guarded })elt, and 
safety chain for overhead counterweight . 

blade. If the machine is not mounted in front of a wall 
of the building, the rear of the machine should be guarded 
to prevent anyone being cut should the saw be swung too 
far backward. A limit chain should be attached to the 



194 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



swing stock and fastened to the wall in the rear, thus lim- 
iting the distance through which the saw may be swung 
outward from the wall. A safety chain from the ceiling 
should be attached to the counterweight to prevent it 
from falling in case it should work loose from the balance 
arm. 

Band Saws. — Fig. 56 illustrates the correct method to 

guard a band saw. The 
wheels are enclosed with a 
guard of wire mesh and angle 
iron. The guard for each 
wheel is built in the form 
of a door, which is mounted 
on hinges, the door being 
locked closed by means of a 
thumb screw. An angle iron 
guard is attached to the 
guide, completely covering 
the working side of the blade 
between the guide and the 
upper door. A guard is also 
placed above the guide, at 
the side, to prevent the saw 
band from flying off in case 
it should break. Heavy self- 
feed band saws should be 
guarded similarly to hand- 
feed machines. 
Jointers. — Fig. 57 is a view of a jointer guard. This 
guard is automatically adjustable in two directions. When 
rabbeting, the guard can be turned over to the end of the 
table, leaving the table and groove clear. When edging, 
the guard swings on the brass tubes R which are pivoted 
to the shield T and casting S. The spring U keeps the 
guard or shield against the board or fence. When surfac- 
ing, the shield is automatically raised as a board is pushed 
against the buffer Y. The casting S is hinged on the steel 




Fig. 56 

Properly guarded band saw. 

Courtesy J . A. Fay & Egan Co. 



WOODWOHKIXC; MACHINERY 195 

rod A. The spring B carries most of the weight of the 
shield T which is made of aluminum to secure lightness 
consistent with strength. When edging, the shield is 
automatically pushed horizontally aside to the width of 
the piece. When surfacing, the shield is pushed vertically 
upward to the thickness of the piece. The knives are thus 
completely covered at all times. 



Fig. 57 

Automatic guard for jointer. 

Courtesy Surty Guard Company, Chicago. 

Fig. 59 shows another type of jointer guard. It con- 
sists of thin wooden slats which are linked together and 
attached to a steel arm and buffer. The guard is flexible 
and folds over the edge of the bed. It moves back and 
forth over a roller which is attached to the side of the table, 
thus minimizing the friction. The buffer is normally held 
in contact with the guide by means of a spring at the 
pivot point, except when stock is being pushed over the 
knives. The guard is then automatically pushed away 
from the guide for the width of the piece. The tension 



196 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



in the spring is adjustable. A sliding clip, which is mounted 
on the arm, may be used in contact with the edge of the 
table to hold the guard in a certain position when pieces 
of the same thickness are to be run on the machine. For 




.^^BB-, 





Fig. 58 

Automatic jointer guard in operation showing complete covering 

for cutting knives. 



rabbeting, a supporting pin may be easily pulled out and 
the guard lowered from the bed of the table. 

Cylindrical safety cutter heads should be used on all 
jointers. (Fig. 61.) The old square head type is especially 
dangerous. If the latter t3^pe is used and an accident 
occurs, a workman will be very apt to lose the whole of 
one or more fingers, whereas, if the former type is used, 
the chances are that the workman would lose onl}" the 



wooD^^'ORKI^G machinery 



197 



tips of his fingers. In case of the cyUndrical safety cutter 
head the large open space in the square cutter head is 
filled. Thus, in the round type, there is not 
space enough to instantly draw in the whole 
of a workman's fingers. The use of the cylindri- 
cal safety cutter head has saved a great many 
fingers which would have otherwise been lost. 
The space in front of the knife is filled by the 





Fig. 60 

Automatic guard for jointer. 

Courtesy J. A. Fay & Egcin Co. 



Fig. 59 
Automatic guard for jointer. 

Courtesy Champion Machinery 
Co., Joliet, III. 




Fig. 61 
Modern safety cutting head of jointer. Xo large space 
exists between cutting head and throat. These safety 
cylindrical cutting heads are far superior in point of safety 
to the old style square cutting heads. 

Courtesy J. A. Fay (t Egan Co. 

throat piece, so there is no chance for chips to drive under 
the knife. The throat space under each knife is made 



198 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



quite small in order to make the head as safe as possible. 
The throat space is large enough, however, to carry off chips 
for heavy cuts and fast feeds. A jointer guard should 

always be used in connection 
with the safety head, as well 
as with the square head, as 
the safety feature of the 
cylindrical head does not 
eliminate the danger of an 
operator being cut ; it simply 
lessens the degree of an in- 
jury if the operator should 
meet with an accident. The 
guide of a jointer should 
never be adjusted when the 
machine is running. 

For ''short" work on a 
jointer, a push block should 
be used to keep the hand from the danger zone. (Fig. 63.) 
This push block should resemble a carpenter's hand planer, 




Fig. 62 
Old style, unsafe, square cutting head 
of jointer. Note large open space 
between cutting head and throat 
in which an operator's fingers might 
be caught and drawn in. 

Courtesy J. A. Fay & Egan Co. 




B£D OF JO/NTER 



Fig. 63 
Push block for short work on jointer. 



having a handle and also a notch in the rear to fit on the 
end of a piece. Thus a short piece may be easily and safely 
pushed over the knives, the handle permitting a firm down- 



WOODWORKING :\IACHIXERY 



199 



ward and forward pressure. Self-feed jointers should be used 
where possible. They not only save time and labor, but also a 
great many accidents. 
Shapers. — Fig. 
64 shows a set of 
shaper guards, one in 
position, and one 
thrown upward out 
of the way for special 
work. These guards 
not only afford a pro- 
tection to the operator 
from the fast revolv- 
ing knives, but they 
also serve to steady 
the work. There are 
man}^ different types 
of shaper guards 




Fig. 64 

Guards for cutting heads of shaper. 
Courtesy Lockhart-Hodge Co., Inc., Buffalo. 



which may be used for certain require- 
ments of the work. 

Cylindrical safety shaper heads, 
similar to those in use on jointers, 
should be employed on shapers when- 
ever possible. When used with 
straight knives, they have all the 
advantages of the safety jointer 
heads. 

Miscellaneous. — Wherever pos- 
sible, woodworking machines should 
be equipped with dust hoods connected 
to an efficient exhaust system. In many 
cases the hood acts as a safeguard, as 
on stickers, tenon machines, etc., 
covering the knives to some extent. 
Many home-made guards for differ- 
ent purposes can be devised which 
will greatly lessen the hazard on certain machines. 




Fig. 65 

Boring auger guard. 

Courtesy J. A. Fay tt' Egau Co 



CHAPTER XV 

COMMON MACHINES 

Several common types of machines have been selected 
for which safeguards will be described and illustrated. No 
attempt will be made in this book to cover the field of 
industrial machinery, but the principles of safeguarding 
which are set forth in this book will serve to stimulate 
further ideas for safeguarding other types of machines. 

Cylinder Printing Presses. — The opening in the frame 
at the end of cylinder printing presses should be guarded 
with a removable screen which may be hung on the frame. 
(Fig. 66.) This will prevent anyone being injured by the 
reciprocating bed or carriage. The cam near the floor at 
the side of the press should be guarded to prevent anyone 
being caught by the crank and the rod. Drive belts and 
pulleys and all gears should be completely encased. Pro- 
jecting keys and set screws should be covered or counter- 
sunk. Platforms should be provided with a handrailing 
with a toeguard at the bottom. Cylinder presses are rather 
dangerous machines at best on account of having so many 
moving parts. 

Job Printing Presses. — These machines should be 
equipped wdth an automatic guard at the point of opera- 
tion, making it practically impossible for an operator to 
accidentally injure his fingers or hand by the crushing 
action of the jaws as the press closes. (Fig. 67.) The guard 
consists of a sliding gate attached to the sides of the 
moving jaw. When the press is open, the horizontal 
bar of the gate rests at the top of the jaw. As the press 
closes, the gate automatically slides upward, shoving the hand 
of the operator away from the danger zone. This guard is 



COM]\ION :\IACHIXES 201 

also applicable to similar machines which are used for 
cutting, scoring, creasing, and embossing. It is an excel- 
lent device and is widely used. It affords the operator 
absolute protection and does not interfere with the work 
in any way. The balance wheels of jobbing presses should 
be guarded with w^ire mesh and angle iron. If more con- 
venient, the balance w^heel may be provided with a disc 
which covers the spokes of the wheel on the exposed side. 



1 


JH 






1 Wf -^^ 


f 










1 




■^F 



Fig. 66 
Wire mesh guard hung on frame at open end of cyhnder printing press 
to prevent workmen being injured between the reciprocating bed and 
framework. 

CourtesTj Bausch & Lomh Optical Comparnj. 

Type Casting Machines. — Exhaust hoods should be 
provided to remove all fumes. A piece of sheet metal 
should be placed over the vent to prevent molten metal 
from being blown into the face of the operator in case it 
becomes temporarily clogged. When working on these 
machines, operators should wear goggles. Large melting 
pots for type metal should also be equipped with exhaust 
hoods with sufficient suction to remove the poisonous 
fumes which are generated. 

Cutting Presses. — Cutting presses should be equipped 



202 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

with a non-repeating device to prevent the knife from 
faUing a second time unless intentionally tripped by the 
operator. Operators frequently place their hands under 




Fig. 67 

Automatic hand guard for job printing press, and disc 

covering spokes of balance wheel. 

Courtesy Taylor Instrument Companies. 

the knife immediately after cutting in order to remove the 
waste material. Unless the cutting press is equipped with 
a locking device to prevent it from accidentally repeating, 
the operator is very apt to lose several fingers in this way. 
The material to be cut should always be securely clamped 



COMMON MAC HIXES 



203 



to the bed before the press is tripped. A safety device, 
consisting of two hand levers, one on each side of the 
press, should be provided. This should be connected to 
the tripping mechanism. It should only be possible to 




Fig. 68 

Guards for hand-power paper cutter. 

Courtesy Western Electric Coiwpnny. 



trip the press by pulling the two hand levers just de- 
scribed at the same time. This insures perfect safety as 
both hands of the operator must be on the handles and 
awa}' from the danger zone as the knife descends. 

Hand power cutting knives should be guarded with a 
wire mesh enclosure. (Fig. 68.) The counterweight should 
also be guarded. Stops should be placed at the outer end 



204 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



of the counterweight arm to prevent the counterweight 
from faUing off in case it should work loose. Similar count- 
erweights of other machines should also be guarded in 
this way. 

Corner Cutters. — Corner cutters should be guarded by 
an obstruction bar at the point of operation, the material 




Fig. 69 

Paper corner cutter guard. 

Courtesy M. D. Knowlton Co., Rochester, N. Y. 

to be cut being pushed under the bar. (Fig. 69.) The guard 
should be adjustable vertically. This guard will prevent 
the operator's fingers from being cut as the knife descends. 
The guard does not interfere with the work in any way 
and, at the same time, affords good protection. 

Corner Staying Machines. — A new safety head for 
these machines is now on the market. (Fig. 70.) It is so 



COMMON MACHINES 205 

designed that if anything the thickness of fj of an inch 
remains between the jaw and the anvil, the machine 




Fio. 70 

Automatic safety head for corner staying machines. 

Courtesy M. D. KnoirUon Co., Rochcslcr, X. Y. 

cannot be tripped. A person's fingers must therefore be 
removed before the pressure jaw can close on the anvil. 
This insures absolute safety. 

Roll Feed Machinery. — This class of machinery is 



206 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



especially hazardous unless properly safeguarded. The 
principles of guarding roll feed machinery are illustrated 




Fig. 71 
Guards for roll feed machinery. 

in Fig. 71. These devices prevent the rolls from engaging 

the operator's fingers 
and drawing them in. 
Roll feed machinery is 
encountered in sheet 
metal works, machine 
shops, rubber factories, 
textile mills, bleacheries, 
paper mills, rolling mills, 
candy factories, gum 
factories, bakeries, laun- 
dries, and other places. 
In nearly all cases, rolls 
may be so guarded by 
one of several methods 
as not to interfere in 
any way with the oper- 
ation of the machine. 

Textile Machinery. — 
The low class of labor 
which is generally employed in textile mills, and the employ- 
ment of minors, makes it imperative to adequately guard all 




Fig. 72 

Exposed gears at end of spinning frame. 

Courtesy Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass. 



COMMON MACHINES 



207 



gears, sprockets, rolls, and belts and pulleys on pickers, 
cards, garnett machines, spinning frames, mule frames, 
drawing frames, looms, warpers, slashers, winders, etc. 

Fig. 72 shows exposed gearing at the end of a spinning 
frame. Fig. 73 shows the most approved method of guarding 
these gears. The lock- 
ing mechanism on the 
door should be so de- 
signed that the ma- 
chines cannot be 
started until the door 
is closed and latched, 
and so that the door 
cannot be opened 
until the machine is 
stopped. 

Shuttle guards 
should be used for all 
looms. 

Lap machines 
should be provided 
with a hood to cover 
the rolls, preventing 
the operator's hand 
being caught b}^ care- 
lessly tucking in the 
lap as the rolls are 
revolving. The guard 
should be designed to 
mechanically lock and unlock, so that it must be closed 
before the machine can be started, and not unlocked before 
the machine is stopped. 

Fig. 74 illustrates the application of a beater lock to 
a finisher. This device is also applicable to breakers 
and intermediates. This device renders it impossible to 
start the machine when either the beater bonnet or 
glass door is open; also, making it impossible to open 




Fig. 73 

Guarded gears at end of spinning frame. 

Courtesy Mason Machine Works, Taunton, Mass. 



208 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



either the beater bonnet or glass door when the machine 
is running. 

The operation of the beater lock is as follows: The 
forked arm of the lock is mounted on a suitable stand 
fitted with a slide bearing which permits the arm to be 
moved in and out. Two of the arms are so made that 
when pushed in on slide they press against the glass door 
and the beater bonnet in such a way that these strips 




Fig. 74 

Beater lock applied to a finisher. 

Courtesy Saco-Lowell Shops, Lowell, Mass. 

cannot be raised. When set in this position, the per- 
forated disc is applied to the beater shaft and so fastened 
that it clears the end of the third arm. This is the 
position of the lock when in operation. 

When it is desired to open the beater bonnet, the slide 
is pulled outward. The end of the third arm, mentioned 
above, engages with slots in the disc on the beater arm, 
so that the beater cannot be turned. At the same time, 
the locking arms release the bonnet and glass door, so that 
they may be opened. 

Fig. 75 shows one method of guarding sewing machine 
belts and shafting. These guards are made in sections and 



COMMON MACHINES 



209 



can be easily removed for cleaning, as they are fastened in 
place b}' hooks. Needle guards should be placed on sewing 
machines, button machines, and buttonhole machines, other- 
wise, accidents will result from needles occasionally piercing 
the fingers of operators. 

Hydro-Extractors. — Fig. 76 shows a cover guard for 



¥^T^ 




Fig. 75 

Guard of wire fabric for belts and shafting of stitching 

machines. Old style skirt board shown at left. 

Courtesy Xorwich Wire Basket Co., Xonrich, \. Y. 



an hydro-extractor. When closed, the guard effectively 
prevents an operator from attempting to place in or 
remove any material from the tub. At the same time, the 
contents are not obstructed from view. The guard cannot 
be raised until the driving belt is shifted to the loose pulley 
and the machine stopped. The machine cannot be started 
until the guard is in position. 



210 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 




Fig. 76 

Hinged guard, with automatic power control, 

for hydro-extractor. 

Courtesy Tolhurst Machine Works, Troy, N. Y. 



CHAPTER XVI 

IRON AND STEEL 

Blast Furnaces. — All stairways, runways and plat- 
forms about blast furnaces and gas washing apparatus 
should be provided with hand rails and toeboards. The 
outrigging and bustle pipes should be equipped with railed 
walks, with iron stairways or stationary iron ladders lead- 
ing to them. Properly railed platforms should be placed 
at all explosion doors. All platforms, runways and walks 
about blast furnaces should be covered with sheet steel, 
to protect workmen from slips of the furnace. Railed 
stairs and runw^ays should be placed at the ends of the 
sides of cast houses, to afford a safe means of egress. The 
elevated floors of cast houses should also be equipped with 
hand rails and toeboards. All blast furnaces should be 
connected by railed walks, w^ith solid bottoms and 12" 
guard plates. 

A steel roof should cover all points where men work 
around blast furnaces. The sheeting on the sides of cast 
houses should extend downward far enough to prevent a 
storm from beating in, and to prevent hot stock being 
thrown in by slips from other furnaces. Hoisting machin- 
ery, cranes, and other machinery near a blast furnace, 
should be covered with a roof. This will protect the men 
from hot metal and other falling material. 

All gas washers and gas mains should be provided with 
valves at each end, by means of which the gas can be 
entirely shut off. Explosion doors should be so built that 
nothing but gas and fine powdery ore can escape from the 
furnace. All tuyeres should be equipped with approved 
sights, affording ample protection to the eyes. Where 



212 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ladles are loaded under the floor, casting holes should be 
covered with a heavy iron grating, or suitably railed off. 
A shield should be placed at the tapping hole. This should 
be so constructed that the hole required for the drill be 
only large enough to permit its free movement. Cinder 
notches should be provided with shields which will protect 
workmen when hotting them. Gates in iron and cinder 
runners should be operated from such a distance that 
workmen will not be in danger of being burned. Pressure 
gauges, snort valve levers, and whistle switches should be 
provided with shields. 

Telephones should be installed at the tops of furnaces 
for the use of signalmen, or men engaged in repairing. 
There should also be telephone connection between the 
skip hoist operator's house and the blower's office. Signal 
whistles in the blowing engine-room should be operated from 
a switch in the cast house. A pilot lamp should be located 
at the switch, indicating when the circuit is closed. To 
prevent a mistake in distinguishing the sound of similar 
whistles, the number of the furnace from which the signal 
is blown should be shown by a light in the power house, 
visible to the engineer. 

Mud guns should be equipped with a funnel-shaped 
casting over the receiving hole of mud cylinders; also, 
with a shield to prevent molten metal from burning the 
workmen. 

No workmen should be allowed above the charging 
floor or bustle pipes, without permission from the foreman, 
on account of the danger from gas. Suitable helmets and 
oxygen-breathing apparatus for rescue work should be 
kept at a convenient place. These should be used when 
working in an atmosphere saturated with gas. Each blast 
furnace plant should maintain a trained crew of workmen 
for rescue work. 

BLAST FURNACE RULES 

1. Work around blast furnaces is very dangerous on account of possible 
explosions, escaping gas, blowing out of hot stock from the top of the furnace, 



IROX AND STKEL 213 

and the possible breaking out of the sides of the furnace. These dangers cannot 
always be guarded against by those in charge. Consetjuently, everyone near a 
blast furnace should l)e i)articularly watchful of his pc^rsonal safely. 

2. You are })articularly warned that it is impossible for those in charge to 
know at all times when a furnace is likely to throw out hot stock, A\hen it is known 
that a furnace is likely to slip, a warning will be given. 

3. There is danger of your being overcome with gas, if you go above the 
floor around the bustle pipes, water troughs, roofs and stoves. Never go on top 
of a furnace unless there are two or three men with you. First, obtain permission 
from the foreman. 

4. Never go on top of a furnace that is hanging or working ])adly. There 
is danger of an explosion. 

5. Before working about explosion doors, and when necessary to open the 
gas seal, see that the gas valves are closed. Be sure that steam has been turned 
on the dust catcher. There is little danger of a gas explosion when the gas mains 
and dust catchers are under pressure. 

6. Do not look through peep holes of a furnace unless it is one of your 
duties. 

7. Before taking the blast off, for any purpose, as for changing a tuyere, 
notice should be given to the person in charge of filling the furnace, to stop filling 
until he receives word that the tuyere has been changed, or the blast put on the 
furnace. This will guard against gas being blown on the men through the tuyere 
openings. 

8. Before pulling a tuyere, the opening should l)e thoroughly stopped with 
clay. 

9. Pipe connections on tuyere and cooler should be made before blast is 
turned on a furnace. 

10. When blowing out blast furnaces, water should be placed in try holes 
and on the big bell. The big bell should be kept partially open by hanging cables 
or rods through the opening between bell and hopper. When gas is no longer 
suital)le for stoves or boilers, and when water seals have to be filled, steam should 
be immediately turned on all dust catchers, thus driving the gas out of the top 
of the furnace where the bleeders are open. All bleeders on dust catcher system 
should be kept closed. 

11. When a blast furnace is blown out, wind being taken off and blow pipes 
dropped, it should be completely roped off. No one should be allowed access to 
the furnace for at least twenty-four hours. After the blast is taken off, the blow 
pipes should be taken down, one at a time, around the furnace. 

12. When blowing in a blast furnace, no charging should be carried on 
after the furnace is lighted, until the blow pipes are up and the blast is on the 
furnace, unless the furnace is allowed to stand under natural draught. 

13. Before monkey fastenings are released, or before the removal of other 
coolers, the pressure should be taken off or reduced. 

14. Before working around explosion doors, bell rods, hangers, or before 
doing any work between the big bell and gas seal, see that the gas valves are 
closed. Be sure that the gas, escaping from the stock, is lighted. Also notify 
the man operating the bells. 

15. Whenever a furnace is hanging badly, or is likely to slij), the man oi)erat- 



214 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ing the snorting valve should see that the mixer valve is tightly closed before 
opening the snorting valve. This rule applies at casting time, if the furnace is 
at all likely to slip. 

16. Great care should be taken in cooling and handhng flue dust. Flue 
dust is dangerous because it is likely to fly, slide, and explode, causing severe 
burns. Never walk on flue dust. 

17. Look out for gas. It may be found anywhere. Sometimes you can- 
not see or smell it. You may become unconscious before you know that gas is 
present. If you feel a sensation of dizziness, headache, stiff neck or weak legs, 
get into the fresh air at once. 

18. When putting water on a furnace to cool it, stand aside to prevent being 
.struck, in case the furnace should burn through. 

19. Keep away from the valves under dust catchers and down-legs, espe- 
cially when a furnace slips. There is always danger from gas. 

20. Each scaleman should test his furnace whistle when he comes on duty. 

21. Employees, working about casting or pig iron machinery, should wear 
goggles to protect their eyes from sparks and splashes of metal. 

22. Keep away from cinder ladles when they are being filled, especially in 
wet weather. 

23. Iron and cinder ladles should not be filled higher than 8" from the top. 

24. Before cinder ladles are filled, they should be dried out and examined 
by a regular inspector. 

25. Employees should be forbidden to ride on fenders of transfer or scale 
cars. 

26. Loose scrap should not be left on the noses of hot metal ladles. 

27. Molten metal will explode when it touches the ground, or a cold, damp 
surface. See that all bars, runners, moulds, mud guns, ladles, and shutters are 
dry before using them. 

Open Hearths. — A suitable platform, serving as a 
means of escape for cranemen from spills of molten metal, 
should be built off the crane runway. When a furnace is 
shut down for repairs, all valves and slides should be pad- 
locked, to prevent gas from being accidentally turned on. 
Hydraulic jib cranes should be provided with a cable, run- 
ning over a sheave at the inner end of the boom, and 
attached to the floor at the base of the crane. This will 
serve to draw the runner back from over the men work- 
ing at the tapping hole. When a furnace is being rebuilt, 
a tight plank fence should be constructed on the charg- 
ing floor. This will prevent material from falhng on men 
working in the furnace ports. 



IRON AXD STEEL 215 



OPEN HEARTH RULES 

1. Molton metal is likely to boil oN'er, espcu-ially wIkmi IIk^ sl()j)i)er of the 
ladle is raised for pouring. This eannot be foi-eseen by those in charge, there- 
fore each workman should be watchful for his own safety. 

2. Metal should not be i)oured into mixers while the gas or oil is turned on. 
Before metal is poured, gas or oil should be turned off from the mixer, and air or 
steam allowed to blow. This will prevent a possible explosion. 

3. \\'hen breaking ingots from cars, the outer shell of the ingot sometimes 
ruptures, allowing molten metal to escape. 

4. Before tapping an open hearth furnace, it should be reversed and cen- 
tered. The first helper should see that the metal is working at the tapping hole, 
and inform the second heli)er before he starts to open the hole. If there is danger 
of a i^remature outbreak, the second helper should be warned. 

5. When working on furnaces below the charging floor, be sure there is no 
material or object above which can fall on you. \\'hen cars arc moved past the 
furnace, get into a position where you will not be injured. 

6. When you are working on a furnace, use a scafTold which is placed in 
such a position that it cannot be struck by a charging car. A signalman should 
be stationed to stop cars before they reach the scaffold. 

7. Switchmen and charging car men should see that loads are properly 
trimmed before moving them. Pans should })e set on buggies in a proper manner. 

8. Slide cars should be so loaded that lumps cannot fall off or break and drop 
when they become cold. 

9. Do not throw any material from the charging car floor to the ground. 

10. Do not break manganese on tapping platforms. It may fly, striking 
workmen in the pit. 

11. Men, working in checkers, should be protected from falling material by 
means of a shelter. 

12. When men are repairing a furnace, going in and out of a furnace, work- 
ing on a scaffold, or on a ladder in front of a furnace, a danger sign — *' Men on 
Track " — should be clamped on the rails at each end of the furnace. This will 
warn operators not to shove cars beyond the danger point. 

13. When on tapping platforms, take care to avoid being struck by stirrup 
ladle hooks on pit cranes. 

14. When ladles are being placed on, or removed from, cars, operators should 
keep off the cars. 

15. Goggles should be worn when pouring, to protect the eyes from sparks. 

16. Before tapping cinders, previous to charging, be sure there are no men 
in the pit in a position to be burned. 

17. Moulds should l)e thoroughly inspected before being set on i)ouring 
platform tracks. Defective moulds, and those having a crust of clog in them, 
should not be used. 

18. Care should be taken in capping or un('ai)j)ing moulds containing soft 
heats. Gas frequently causes an explosion. Moulds should not be uncapped 
until 10 minutes after l)eing poured. Goggles should be worn during this 
operation. 

19. Covers should ne\'er l)e reniox'ed from th(M-niit welding pits. 



216 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

20. Moulds with stickers on, when being switched in narrow gauge cars, 
should be blocked up with wooden blocks. Brick should never be used for 
blocking. 

Cupolas. — All platforms and runways about cupolas 
should be equipped with standard handrails and toeboards. 
The latter are important in preventing loose material from 
falling on workmen below. The section of the cupola, 
which is just below the charging floor, should be made of 
cast steel. This will prevent warping, keeping scrap and 
other material from falling through between the charging 
floor and the cupola. Cupolas should be provided with 
a grate covering, except over the space through which 
material is fed to the furnace. Ladles should be provided 
with sheet metal shields at the side where the operator 
stands in pouring them. This will protect him from spilled or 
spattered molten metal. Where the cinder from the cupola 
is run through the floor, the runner should be guarded 
by a shield of sufficient height to prevent workmen from 
stepping into it. 

Drop chutes on cupolas should be enclosed so far as 
possible, a four inch hole being ample in which to place a 
bar for knocking out props. Wherever practicable, props 
should be pulled out by means of a snatch block and cable, 
rather than by hand. The bottom doors and fastenings 
should be frequently inspected for defects. 

Before cleaning out a cupola furnace, steel shields, with 
a bar hole, should be set up to protect the workmen when 
knocking out props. These shields prevent workmen from 
being burned by flames which might shoot out when the 
doors open. When relining a furnace, a screen should be 
placed at the top of the cupola. This will prevent loose 
bricks and other material from falling on the workmen. 

Mud guns, for stopping tap holes, should be equipped 
with a funnel shaped casting to prevent workmen from 
kicking mud into the tap hole. 

The hoist elevator should be enclosed on the unused 
sides to a height of 6 feet. The used side should be 



IRON AND STEEL 217 

equipped with an automatic gate, to prevent loose mate- 
rial from falling on the workmen below. The elevator should 
be provided with a self-releasing hinged cover. There 
should be a substantial grating under the head sheaves, 
unless the elevator is of the plunger type. The unused 
sides of the shaft should be enclosed with wire mesh 
between the floor and the charging platform. Both 
entrances to the elevator shaft should be provided with 
automatic gates G feet in height. 

Mixers. — All mixers should be so counterbalanced 
that they will return unaided to the upright position, if 
the pressure is off the tipping cylinder. Next to the oper- 
ating valve on the pressure pipe, at the front of the tip- 
ping cylinder, should be placed a cut-off valve, w^hich will 
cut off the pressure from the cylinder, opening it to the 
discharge. The counterweight will then bring the mixer 
back to the upright position, not allowing it to be held 
back by the water in the cylinder. This valve should be 
used only in case of emergency. The hydraulic cylinder 
under a mixer should be protected with a steel plate, cov- 
ered with fire brick. A safe means of escape should be 
provided for men working on the mixer platform. Warn- 
ing bells should be installed. These should always be rung 
by the operator before pouring a heat. 

Pouring platforms should be ampl}^ large. The}^ should 
be provided with a number of exits. Platforms for operators 
should be so placed that the men can see the operation 
of their machinery at all times. 

Side levers should be used for pouring steel. Steel 
should not be poured straight from in front of the ladles. 

Crucibles. — Graphite crucibles should be frequently 
examined for cracks and other superficial flaws. Crucibles 
which are not found to be in a sound condition should not 
be used. 

Aloisture in a crucible is a great danger, when the 
crucible is subjected to a high temperature. All crucibles 
should be carefully examined for dampness. They should 



218 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

always be kept in a warm dry atmosphere. They may be 
safely stored in an oven on the roof of a continuously 
operated core oven. This will prevent the absorption of 
any moisture. Small amounts of absorbed and trapped 
moisture, within the walls of the crucible, are converted 
into steam at high temperatures. Slight explosions then 
ensue which gradually weaken and fracture the crucible. 

Each crucible should be properly annealed before plac- 
ing metal in it for the first time. After annealing, the 
crucible should not be allowed to cool before it is charged, 
otherwise moisture may again be absorbed. 

As concentrated pressure on the crucible at a melting 
temperature may deform, indent or fracture its sides or 
bottom, it is important that the crucible, when in the 
furnace, be set upon well prepared fuel beds, or upon level 
fire bricks or graphite pedestals. The bottoms of crucibles 
should be free from clinkers and other projections. 

Metal should be loosely charged into a crucible, to 
prevent jamming or wedging as the metal expands, other- 
wise it may strain and crack its walls. 

After pouring, no metal should be allowed to remain 
in a crucible, unless it is to be immediately recharged. If 
it is not scraped free from slag after pouring, '^buttons" 
of metal will form, which strain the crucible on contract- 
ing. It is advisable to scrape the crucible, after each heat, 
of all slag and scrap. This secures maximum capacity. 

Crucibles are often damaged by badly fitting tongs and 
shanks. The tools should not "pinch" the crucible when 
it is being lifted or poured. Tongs should grip the crucible 
below the bilge, avoiding the crushing of the lip. Plain 
ring shanks pinch the crucible least, and are safest. Rings 
should be thick enough to retain their shape for a long 
time. Tongs and shanks should be frequently examined 
for flaws, worn pins and rivets, and other defects. 

Ladles. — Ladles should be so balanced on their trunnions 
as to remain erect, even when filled with molten metal. Top- 
heavy unstable bowls are always dangerous. On the other 



IRON AND STEEL 219 

hand, the bowl should not be too heavy below the trunnions. 
Careful balancing is essential to facilitate smooth pouring. 
The operating gears should be so designed that two sets 
of teeth are in mesh at all times. If one set of teeth breaks, 
the other will act as a safeguard against spilling the molten 
metal. Gears in the operating mechanism wear ver}^ 
quickl}', being subject to extreme heat and cold. For 
this reason, they should be frequently inspected. Ladle 
gears should be enclosed wdth a removable metal casing. 
The gears should be so arranged on all ladles in the foundry, 
that the hand wheel is turned in the same direction on each 
one; otherwise, an operator may unconsciously turn the 
hand wheel of a ladle in the wrong direction, spilling the 
molten metal. 

When being carried by cranes, monorail trolleys, and 
when resting on ladle buggies, ladles should be secured in 
the upright position by means of a latch. The lips of ladles 
should be so designed that the metal will flow freely in 
one smooth stream when pouring. They should be designed 
to prevent molten metal from backing up and over- 
flowing from the ladle. Ladles are now designed with a 
recessed top rim, to prevent molten metal from slopping over. 
In case the metal slops against the side from a jerky move- 
ment, it is thus directed back to the center of the ladle. 

All mixer transfer ladles should be provided with auto- 
matic alarms. A signal system should be installed between 
the mixer, pourer, and operator of transfer ladles. This 
should be used for notif^dng the operator when the heat 
is to be poured and w^hen ladles are ready to be moved. 
Uncapping stands should be equipped with sliding doors, 
or properly railed off. 

All ladle trunnions should be drilled and tested before 
they are placed in service. 

The bail of ladles is subjected to constant wear where 
the crane hook engages it, being gradually weakened at 
this point. Bails should be replaced when they are show- 
ing signs of excessive w^ear. 



220 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Hand ladles should be so balanced as to return to the 
upright position, regardless of the amount of metal in 
them. The shanks should be amply strong. Hand ladles 
should be provided with a shield or fender to prevent the 
molten metal, if spilled, from slopping upon the workman. 
Discarded ladle shanks should be scrapped. Defective 
shanks should be immediately repaired. Ladle shanks 
should not be stored where they may be subjected to cor- 
rosion, or exposed to the weather, as they will quickly rust. 
Single ladle shanks should preferably be attached to the 
bowls. Bull ladle shanks, if detachable, should have a rigid 
fork at one end, and a swivel fork at the other, so that the 
man on the swivel end cannot interfere with the control of 
the ladle by the man holding the rigid end. The bowls 
of bull ladles should be secured to their shanks by means of 
iron clamps fitting over the rim. Shanks with one plain 
end should not be used for carrying. They do not afford a 
proper grip. 

Ladles should be thoroughly dried before use. If at 
all damp when molten metal is poured into them, the 
metal will explode. Large ladles are usually dried by wood 
fires, or by drying torches. It is best to dry hand ladles 
and bull ladles in an oven, over special ladle heaters, 
or in a large core oven. In any case, they should be 
thoroughly heated and free from dampness. 

Ladles should be inspected for cracked and thin bowls, 
loose rivets, eroded shanks, defective welds, imperfect bal- 
ancing, defects in gear mechanism, and lack of guards on 
gears. A special mian should be appointed as a ladle 
inspector. This method is safer than having each mxan 
inspect his own, as many workmen prefer to take chances, 
rather than adopt the safe course. The inspector should 
see that ladles are stored together in a dry place. Ladles 
with holes, cracks, or thin places in the lining, should be 
discarded until relined. 

Carrying and Pouring. — The safety recessed type of 
ladles with guard fenders should be used to prevent the 



IROX AXD STEEL 



221 



molten metal from being easily spilled. The handling and 
pouring of ladles should be entrusted to experienced men. 
The bowl should be carried behind the workman, with the 
back of the hands facing forward. The ladle should be 
well balanced. Where many men pass one another to and 
fro, it is good practice to have them pass each other 




Fig. 77 

Wrong way and right wa}' to pour molten metal. Improper and proper 

clothing for legs and feet. 

Courtesy National Founders^ Association. 

on the bowl side. This prevents confusion. Collision with 
the bowl of a ladle does not cause such a serious splash of 
metal as collision with the handle. AVhile pouring, the 
workman should keep his feet away from the mould, and 
from underneath the bowl. Bull ladles should be carried 
by men of approximately the same height, so that ladle 
handles may be naturally kept in a horizontal position. 
Workmen, when passing by, should keep to the right. 



222 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Where many moulds of a uniform height are to be 
poured from bull ladles, portable horses, which straddle 
the moulds, should be used. While pouring, the ladles 
may be placed upon these steady supports. 

When filling hand ladles at the cupola from a contin- 
uous stream, the ladles should be cut into the stream from 




Fig. 78 

"Congress" shoes and canvas leggings for foundrymen. 

Courtesy National Founders' Association. 



the front side, instead of at the back. This will avoid 
excessive spattering. Ladles should not be filled so full 
that molten metal will easily slop over when being carried. 
Shoes. — ''Congress^' shoes have become the standard 
for foundry work. They have no tongues, lacings, eyelets 
or buttonholes, in which spilled or spattered molten metal 
might be caught and held, thus burning through the 
leather into the flesh of the workman. (Fig. 78.) They 



IKOX AND STEEL 223 

may be easily and quickly removed in case of an emer- 
genc}^ whereas it would be impossible to remove a lace 
or button shoe in time to prevent being burned by molten 
metal, which might lodge in some depression of the shoe. 
These shoes should be sold at cost to the workmen. This 
will induce the workmen to buy them, instead of other 
kinds. Employers should require their foundrymen to 
wear this type of shoe. 

Leggings. — Almost equal in importance to ^^ Congress '^ 
shoes are suitable leggings. Some are made of canvas, 
some of asbestos, and others of leather. Canvas leggings 
are found to be most suitable to the conditions which 
ordinarily prevail. It may happen in other cases, however, 
that asbestos leggings are a necessity on account of the 
intense heat. 

In any case, the leggings should be so constructed as 
to be quickly slipped off. The "'N. F. A." legging meets 
this requirement. This legging consists of a tapered can- 
vas sleeve, fitted w^ith suitable spring clasps to hold it on 
the workman's leg. Canvas is a cheap, light and com- 
fortable material for this purpose. It readily sheds molten 
metal from its surface. The legging is held on the leg by 
means of two flat springs, which are enclosed in suitable 
pockets at the top and bottom. The springs are sufficiently 
flexible to allow quick removal of the legging, yet having 
enough tension to hold the legging securely in place. This 
type of legging has the important advantages of having 
no straps, buckles or buttons. A canvas collar, slightly 
drawn in, is fastened at the top of the legging. This per- 
mits a snug fit about the leg, thus enclosing the gap that 
would otherwise allow the entrance of molten metal. A 
canvas flap is attached to the back of the legging, to be 
tucked within the legging, covering the trousers. The 
whole leg is thus completely encased with canvas. One 
size of legging is suitable to practically any size of leg. 
Suitable stiffening ribs are secured inside the legging. 
These prevent buckling. 



224 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

The combination of such leggings with foundry shoes 
offers complete protection to the feet and lower part of 
legs of foundrymen. Either may be removed almost in- 
stantly. The use of both practically eliminates serious foot 
and leg burns. 

Goggles. — Nothing is more important for safety in 
the iron and steel industry than the proper protection of 
the eyes. Workmen should be supplied with individual 
pairs of goggles, suitable for the work at which they are 
engaged. They should be required to wear goggles in 
handling molten metal, roughing, chipping, grinding, bab- 
bitting, and in any other instance where the eyes should 
be protected. Thousands of eyes are lost through neglect 
of this simple precaution. 

Trucks and Charging Cars. — Trucks and charging 
cars should be equipped with suitable guards or fenders 
in front of the wheels, preventing anybody from being run 
over by the wheels. If a workman is hit, he will simply 
be pushed along the track by the guard, thus preventing 
the wheels from crushing him. Workmen should be for- 
bidden to ride on trucks and charging cars. Warning 
gongs should be placed on all cars. All gears should be 
encased. A plate guard, at least 3 inches in height, should 
be placed on both sides of the traversing carriage runway, 
to prevent men from placing their feet on the track. 
Bumpers should be placed on each traversing carriage 
track, to prevent the carriage running back within two 
inches of the end plate. 

Foundry Floors. — It is important that foundry floors 
be kept in an orderly condition, free from obstructions in 
the regular paths used by workmen. Gangways should 
be kept clear at all times. The floor surface should be 
kept in an even condition. Loose articles and uneven 
places on the floor, or in the gangways, cause ^'spills" 
of molten metal, which result in serious burns to work- 
men. This type of accident is of verj^ frequent occurrence. 

Gangways should be so wide that workmen can pass 



IKOX AXD STEEL 



225 



each other with safety when carrying ladles. Workmen 
should have clear avenues of escape from ^'spills" at all 
times. Clangways should never be used for the temporary 
storage of flasks, castings or moulds. Each morning before 
dressing down, or building up the floors, it is good prac- 
tice to stretch twine lines on permanent hooks, located at 
the floor ends of the aisles. These lines guide the work- 
men in dressing down, or building up floors, and in placing 
their moulds. Another way is to drive 4"x4" wooden 




^ iflgil,^ 



Fig. 79 
Congested and dangerous foundry floor. 
Courtesy National Founders' Association. 



stakes at close intervals, showing the aisle lines. The tops 
of the stakes are used to show the floor level which is to 
be maintained, the stakes being easily removed and re- 
placed when necessary. Workmen will not stumble over 
them when the}" are covered with sand. These stakes are 
also used to apportion individual floor and aisle space, thus 
preventing one moulder from infringing upon the floor or 
aisle space of another. 

^Moulds and individual aisles should be so arranged as 
to make it unnecessary for the pourers to climb over moulds 



226 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

when pouring. Each mould should be readily accessible. 
The individual aisles should be wide enough to allow the 
pourer ample room when standing and pouring; also, wide 
enough to prevent the pourer from colliding with other 
workmen, flasks, partitions or posts. 

Every day, before pouring is begun, each moulder 
should be required to clear his floor and aisles. All sledges, 
flask clamps, wedges, hammers, and other implements 
should be removed. Skimmers should be assigned a stand- 
ard place. A place should also be provided for ladles when 
temporarily set aside. Ladles should never be placed in 
the aisle, even for a moment, as this may cause some 
passing workman to stumble. Workmen should not be 
permitted to throw hot castings, moulds, or sprues into the 
aisles. Spill troughs should not be placed in the aisles. 
They should be located at some other safe place. Spaces 
should be provided on posts, shelves or partitions for all 
tools. There should be a hook for every shovel and ladle 
shank. Double shanks should be suspended from light 
chains when not in use. Chain slings should be hung side 
by side. They should not be left upon the floor. Ladles 
should be stored in a separate room where they may be 
dried and relined. Flasks and patterns, not required for 
immediate use, should be placed in the flask storage yard, 
or in the pattern storage. Barrows, trucks, and sand 
boxes should be removed from the foundry, when not in 
use. Strong shelves should be placed about the walls upon 
which extras, not required for immediate use, can be 
stored. 

Unless there is a regular place for all tools and ap- 
pliances, the articles being kept there when not in use, 
the floors soon become dangerously congested. The foundry 
which is in an orderly condition is usually found to be 
more efficient, and to suffer fewer accidents, than the 
foundry in which systematic practice is lacking. 

Foundry Yards. — Foundry yards should be maintained 
in an orderly condition. An orderly yard is safer and 



IROX AND STEEL 



227 



cheaper to maintain than a disorderl}' one. The foundry 
yard is usually used for the storage of a great many flasks, 
castings, and other material. The storage of these ma- 
terials in the foundry yard relieves the congestion which 
would otherwise obtain in the foundry. 

Flasks w^hich are stored in a systematic manner, not 
too high, may be easily found at any time; whereas, in a 




Fig. 80 
Safe and well kept foundry floor with plenty of aisle space and adequate 

natural light. 

Courtesy National Founders^ Association. 

yard littered with flasks which are piled in a haphazard 
way, much time is wasted in looking for the desired flask. 
The surface of the yard should be fairly flat, to pro- 
vide the proper foundation for storage piles. Smooth, level 
cinder path footways should be built for the safe travel of 
barrows, trucks, and employees. These walks should be 
so located that employees will use them, instead of taking 
shorter cuts over small piles of pig iron, scrap, or other 
material. Board walks are not practicable, as they quickly 
deteriorate or become broken. 



228 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

All pits, depressed walks, or unsafe places should be 
protected with guard rails. All manholes should be cov- 
ered. 

Sand and coke bins, and other permanent bins, should 
be substantially built, and maintained in good condition. 
Weak, dilapidated bins are unsafe. Suitable bins should 
be constructed into which workmen should be taught to 
deposit old lumber, barrel hoops, discarded shovels, worn- 
out tools and equipment, and other rubbish, instead of 
carelessly throwing them about the yard where they may 
injure workmen. 

Material should be carefully piled. No material should 
be stored within 6 feet of any track. 

Sand Mixing Machines. — The opening to the mixing 
cylinder should be protected by a substantial iron rod grat- 
ing, with rods spaced not farther than two inches apart. 
The mixer should be equipped with free swinging discharg- 
ing doors. Belting and gears should be completely guarded. 
A tight and loose pulley should be provided. The belt 
shifter should be equipped with an automatic locking device. 

Grinding Mill. — The tub should be completely sur- 
rounded by a circular screen guard of sufficient height to 
prevent anyone being crushed by the heavy rollers. The 
mill may be fed by a hopper through an opening in the 
screen. All gears, belting and the clutch should be com- 
pletely encased. The clutch should be equipped with an 
automatic locking device. 

Sand Sifters. — Sand sifters should be protected by a 
standard railing, equipped with a gate, placed at least 12 
inches from the revolving parts. Belts should be guarded 
to a height of 6 feet and provided with a belt shifter which 
will automatically lock on and off position. 

Tumbling Barrels. — Tumbling barrels have dangerous 
projections, such as bolts, rods, flanges, and fastenings. The 
barrel should be guarded with hinged cylindrical sections of 
sheet metal which enclose the exposed parts as shown in the 
accompanying figure. The sheet metal sections should rest 



IRON AXD STEEL 



229 



on a framework of angle iron, and should be properly hinged 
and counterweighted. The gears should be completely en- 
closed. The belting should be guarded to a height of 6 
feet. Chain hoists, suspended from an overhead trolley 
track, should be provided for lifting the covers off the 
barrels. This will prevent many accidents from covers 




Fig. 81 
Sheet metal guards for tumbling barrels which arc hinged and counterweighted. 
Courtesy Xational Founders^ Association. 



falling upon the hands and feet of workmen. The ma- 
chine should be equipped with an efficient exhaust system, 
which will remove all dust which would otherwise injure 
the health of the men. The intake is usually at one end 
of a hollow shaft, and the exhaust at the other. This 
method of removing dust prevents it from escaping from 
the barrel. Machines which have no exhaust system of 
this kind should be completely housed in dust-proof com- 
partments. These housings should be equipped with sliding 



230 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

doors, carefully counterweighted, with the counterweights 
enclosed. Smaller housings are often necessary, with steel 
roller shutters for the enclosure, instead of rising doors. 
The compartments and housings should be tightly built, 
with well fitted doors and shutters. 

Guard rails may be equipped with gates which are 
connected to the starting lever. In this case, the machine 
cannot be started until the gate is closed. On the other 
hand, the machine is stopped by means of this automatic 
control, as soon as the gate is opened. This device insures 
that the workman will be in a safe position when the 
mill is running. In any case, levers should be of the posi- 
tive locking type, to prevent the belt from creeping on 
the tight pulley, unexpectedly starting the machine. 

To prevent accidents caused by a slight movement of 
the mill while it is being loaded or unloaded, a suitable 
locking device or brake should be installed, to positively 
lock the barrel in position. The usual method of propping 
the barrel with a bar is unsafe, as the bar may be kicked 
or jarred out of place. 

Finally, the aisles in front of, and leading to, tumbling 
barrels, should be kept clear of obstructions. 

Gas Producers. — All cleaning and explosion doors on 
gas pipes or mains should be hinged. Counterweights on 
explosion doors should be provided with safety chains, or 
other devices, to prevent them from falling, in case of 
breakage. Bar hole stoppers should be hinged. Cleaning 
doors on gas pipes, opening on a platform or walk, should 
be so constructed that they can be locked closed, to pre- 
vent back pressure of gas from forcing them open. When 
a producer is shut off from the main pipe, or when a soak- 
ing pit or a furnace is cut out, provision should be made 
so that the gas cannot accidentally be turned on again. 

When working about gas producers, the danger of being 
overcome by gas should be kept in mind. 



IRON AND STEEL 231 



RULES FOR COKE OVENS 

1. Employcos should be forbidden to go on coal conveyors, or in f>;;dleries 
in coal-crushing building, gas-cooling building, coal-washing building, or any 
other by-product building, unless their duties require them to do so. 

2. Xo one should be permitted to ride on transfer cars, pushers, levelers, or 
other machinery, without consent of the foreman. 

3. Smoking, or the use of naked lights in the buildings, should be positively 
prohibited. Waste or grease of any kind should not be allowed to accumulate. 

4. When screwing electric bulbs in sockets, in the gas-cooUng or washing 
buildings, the power should be turned off to prevent explosion. 

5. Tar should be kept off walks, steps and runways. 

6. When working on top of ovens, wear clogs or canvas soles to prevent the 
heat from burning your feet. 

7. Special tools should be provided for cleaning around and under conveyors. 

8. Heaters and heater helpers should exercise care in opening gas guns. 
There should be no open lights or fires in the alleys when swabbing out burner 
pipes. 

1). When taking off caps to swab the pipes, and when removing plugs in the 
mains to chase tar, swabmen and tar chasers should make sure that all fires and 
open lights are out. 

RULES FOR STOVE CLEANERS 

1. Stove tenders and packers should not tighten nuts on doors of stoves, 
tuyere caps, etc., when the stove is on blast. 

2. When men are working in a stove, signs reading " Danger, Do not Move " — 
should be hung on the chain operating the cold blast valve. 

3. All stove cleaners should wear eye shields. 

4. When the wind is off the furnace or when the furnace is slipping badly, 
the foreman should order stove cleaners out of stoves. There is danger of gas 
from the furnace backing in the stoves and igniting. 

5. When working in the bottom of a stove, cleaning checkers, workmen 
should stand under the arch to protect themselves from falling brick and flue 
dust. 

6. No torches should })c used at blast furnace stoves, or other i)Iaces where 
there is gas, but the use of extension cords and protected electric lamps at these 
places should be enforced. 

Stock Yards and Stock Bins. — Ore bridge trolley cabs 
should be equipped with brakes, air whistles or gongs, and 
with safety switches located on top of the cab. Safety 
switches should also be installed at each end of the bridge 
between tracks, to cut off all power respectively from each 
set of truck gears. Trucks should be provided with auto- 
matic brakes. 



232 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

In handling stock from pockets, the bottoms of which 
are formed by drums, gates should be installed over the 
drums, to prevent material from falling on the car opera- 
tor. Pockets should be so shielded as to prevent material, 
dumped from above, from running through the pocket, 
injuring men in the alley below. 

All scale and transfer cars should be equipped with air 
brakes, fenders, and gongs which should ring continuously 
while the car is moving. 

Skip pits should be so constructed that there will be 
ample clearance for a man on all sides of the skip car. All 
skip pits which cannot be entered at the bottom level 
should be equipped with stairs. Skip openings in stock 
trestles should be guarded. Skip car tracks, near the top 
of a furnace, should be provided with shields on the under 
side, terminating in a chute. 

Bins, which are used for flue dust, should be provided 
with heavy cast iron sluice gates, adapted to quickly 
cutting off hot flue dust. 

A sprinkling arrangement should be so installed at all 
dust catchers as to. thoroughly wet the dust as it is emptied 
into cars. Operating devices for dust catchers should be 
provided, which will enable workmen to dump them while 
standing at a safe distance to avoid being burned by the 
hot dust. The down-legs should be low enough to prevent 
the dust from scattering. 

RULES FOR FOUNDRIES AND STEEL MILLS 

1. Workmen handling molten metal, babbitting, roughing, finishing, arc- 
welding, chipping or grinding, should wear goggles, masks or helmets. 

2. Shields should be used when roughing or cleaning with a sledge. 

3. Workmen handling molten metal should wear " Congress " shoes and 
leggings to afford the proper protection from burns. Shoes with eyelets, lacings 
or buttonholes are dangerous. Spilled or spattered molten metal will catch in 
these places, and burn through the leather into the flesh. Wear shoes with good 
stout soles, and do not allow them to wear too thin. 

4. Asbestos leggings, aprons and mittens should be worn, when deemed 
necessary by the superintendent or foreman. 

5. No more men should be allowed arountl ladles, when they are being 



IRON AND STEEL 233 

poured, than is absoluh^ly necessary. Ladles should be properly protected l)y 
metal shields. 

(i. Employees, engaged in dumping ladles of molten metal, should ))(> in- 
structed to use care not to stand in the way of any metal, which might splash, or 
run out of the course in which it is intended to flow. 

7. Moulds, bars, runners, etc., should be dried before using. iVIolten metal 
will explode, when it touches wet, cold or damp surfaces, or is spilled on the 
ground. 

8. Employees should be fori^idden to ride on engines, cars, overhead (n- 
locomotive cranes, or other moving bodies, except when required to do so by 
their duties. 

9. All ropes, chains, cables, blocks, shngs, and other portable appliances, 
used for hoisting, should be kept under lock and key, when not in use. The fore- 
man should examine these appliances l:)efore they are given out, to insure their 
being in good condition. Chains and hooks should be annealed from time to time, 
and records kept of inspections and annealing. The hooks and chains should 
be numbered, so that they may be identified. The overloading of chains should 
be strictly forbidden. Foremen, chainmen and cranemen should be held indi- 
vidually responsible for the observance of this rule. 

10. Chainmen should take sufficient time and care to avoid injuring their 
hands, when chaining or hooking. They should see that the slings are properly 
made and hooked, adapted to the work at hand, of sufficient strength, and that 
they are protected from the sharp edges or corners of material by wood, or some 
other yielding material. The ropes or chains should never make an angle of 
less than 60° with the horizontal. Chainmen should make sure that the load 
cannot slip, tip or overturn. Chain slings should never be crossed, when placed 
around a load. 

11. Wire rope should be used for lashing, except where it would be likely to 
slip, or in case of raising light material. When lifting heavy pieces, double lash- 
ing should be provided, and where practicable, double tackle should be used. 
Li all cases, the man in charge of the work should ascertain, if possible, the weight 
of the material to be hoisted. He should carefully inspect the tackle and lashing. 

12. Do not take hold of the crane cable above the sheave block. Your fingers 
might be drawn into the block and mutilated. 

13. Hold the hook, as the block is being hoisted, so that it cannot catch on 
anything. 

14. Hookers should walk ahead of loads carried by cranes, and warn men 
on the floor to get out of the way of the load. 

15. Jib cranes should be kept back in the bays, to prevent them from being 
struck by crane loads. 

16. Be ever watchful of loads carried by cranes, or suspended in the air, 
and keep out from under them. 

17. No one should be allowed to go upon an overhead crane runway, 
without permission from his foreman, and then not until the cranemen 
have been notified. Before a man goes upon a crane runway, for any pur- 
pose, provision should be made, by the foreman in charge, to stop all cranes 
before they reach the point where the man is working, until he gets into a 
place of safety. 



234 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

18. Foremen should learn the safe working loads of all cranes and chains 
in their departments, and be careful that these loads are not exceeded. The safe 
capacity of each crane, in pounds, should be printed in large white letters on 
each side of the crane. 

19. Defective ropes or cables should never be used. 

20. Before giving a signal to move or hoist a load, chainmen should make 
sure that no one is in a position to be injured. 

21. The floors should be kept in an orderly condition. They should never 
be allowed to become overcrowded or congested. Gangways should be kept clear 
at all times. 

22. Do not allow material to drop on your hands or feet. Many accidents 
are caused in this manner. 

23. Do not overload trucks. Be careful to keep your feet from under the 
wheels. See that the handle cannot swing around and strike you. Do not walk 
at the side of loaded trucks, when being moved. 

24. Use great care in handUng and pouring molten metal. 

25. Do not go upon either ingot car, or charging car tracks, without first 
seeing where the car is. 

26. All employees, except attendants, should be warned to keep away from 
gas producers. 

27. Keep the flue doors of gas producers weighted or barred, to prevent 
back pressure of gas forcing them open. 

28. Steam should not be shut off, while the gas producer is in operation. 

29. Lighting gas and oil furnaces: 

A. How to light gas furnaces: 

1. Make sure that all gas in the furnace is shut off, and that the draft 

damper is open. 

2. Put a blazing fire at gas inlet. 

3. Turn on gas. 

B. How to light oil furnaces: 

1. Make sure that the air or steam valve is closed. 

2. Put a blazing fire at oil inlet. 

3. Open the oil valve a little. 

4. Turn on air or steam. 

30. Dangerous gas may be found anywhere. You cannot always see or smell 
it. You may become unconscious before you know that the gas is present. If 
you feel a sensation of dizziness, stiff neck, weak legs or headache, get into the 
fresh air as soon as possible. 

31. Men, working in pickling rooms, should watch the movements of the 
cranes, in handling stock to and from the vats, to avoid being splashed with acid. 
They should wear goggles to protect the eyes from scale and acid. 

32. Whenever repairing or oiling a machine, each boss of a crew, and each 
independent man, should attach his own padlock to the switch, irrespective of 
whether he finds the switch already locked or not. 

33. Shearmen should use care not to get their hands too near or under the 
knives of the shears, corrugating machines or any other similar appliances, even 
when not in operation. The knives might drop unexpectedly. 

34. When shearing bars, or other material, take care that the end docs not 



IRON AND STEEL 235 

fly up and strike you. Never remove guards, })laeed in back of shears, which keep 
the material from flying. 

35. The shear knife should be down, l)efore anyone is allowed to change 
the gauge. 

36. When roUing bars, which run oil the end of tlie table, a man should Ije 
stationed near the end to warn persons passing by. 

37. Never put a bar into the next set of rolls, until you are sure it is over 
the safety post. Be sure that the safety post is in position, and securely fastened 
to the floor. 

38. Take care that the bars, coming through the rolls, do not strike j'our 
hands or feet. 

39. Before moving tables, or other machinery, make sure that no one is in 
a position to be injured. 

40. Do not go under a table unless you have notified the operator, and 
blocked the table. 

41. When pulhng bars from the pile to the table, exercise great care not to 
pull bars that will cause other bars to fall on you. 

42. Do not step on table rolls. They may be started at any moment. 

43. Watch out for table dogs. Do not step in table dog slots. 

44. When working around rolls, especially when wearing gloves, be careful 
that your hands are not caught by the rolls. 

45. Under no circumstances, put 3'our feet in front of the passes, while the 
mill is running. 

46. Spindles should be securely boxed at all times. 

47. When operating bulldozers, do not stand w^here bars on tables can move 
along and strike you. 

48. Do not go under a saw^ frame, unless you have notified the operator, and 
blocked the saw. 

49. Pull out safety switch, and stop machinery, before going under conveyors. 

50. Use great care in operating hammers, bulldozers, punches, shears, etc., 
and be especially careful not to trip them unintentionally. 

51. When passing through the mills, go by the regular passages, subways 
or overhead walks. 



CHAPTER XVII 

HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 

Machinery, which is used to hoist and carry loads, 
requires constant care and frequent inspection to insure 
safety. The provision of adequate safeguards and safety 
devices, in this connection, is especially important. There 
is always danger that suspended loads may fall, with the 
possibility of injuring workmen beneath them. Where 
cranes are used to carry molten metal, there is increased 
danger from spills, which might cause serious and fatal 
burns. There is a multitude of other conditions which 
may exist or arise, producing many other accidents. These 
can mostly be avoided, however, by the use of suitable 
safeguards, careful operation, and frequent and thorough 
inspection. 

Electric Traveling Cranes. — The structural work of 
cranes should be of medium open hearth steel. No cast 
iron should be used except for bearing caps, collector shoes, 
trolley collector hinges, and arm and collector supports. 
Steel should be used for all other parts. Cast gear covers, 
however, may be of malleable iron. No wood or other 
combustible material should be used in the construction 
of any crane. 

All parts which are subject to impact and rough usage 
should be amply strong. Journals and shafts should be of 
sufficient size to bring pressures and deflections within 
safe limits. 

Gears, drums, blocks, hooks, shafts, girders subject to 
dynamic stresses, and other parts should be designed with 
a factor of safety of at least 10, based on the ultimate 
strength of the material used. Ropes with a factor of 



HAXDLIXG AND STORING MATERIAL 237 

safety of less than 10 should not be used. If the crane is 
used to carry hot metal, the factor of safety for ropes 
should be increased at least 25%. Crane girders, which 
are not subject to dynamic stresses, should be designed 
with a factor of safety of not less than 5. 

All bolts should be of the through type. No studs or 
cap screws should be used. Bolts should be secured from 
turning by means of lock nuts or lock washers. 

Wheels should be keyed to their shafts, and gears should 
be keyed to the hubs of wheels. Track wheels should 
be of rolled open hearth steel. Wheels and axles should be 
of sufficient diameter, and designed to prevent an excessive 
load on any one bearing. All gears, couplings, keys, and 
other dangerous parts, should be completely guarded. 

Stairs with hand rails should be used, wherever possible, 
in preference to ladders. Footwalks, with hand rails and 
toeboards, should be placed the entire length of the bridge 
on both sides, and across both ends of the trolley at right 
angles to bridge walks, but they should not telescope over 
end carriage. A footwalk should pass underneath and 
around, instead of over the bridge motor. There should 
be a clearance of 6' 6" between the floor of the walk and 
overhead trusses or other structural members. Footw^alks 
should be substantially constructed of steel, and rigidly 
braced. Floors and walks should be built solid of check- 
ered steel plate. 

The operator's cage should be entirely constructed of 
fireproof material. It should be enclosed to a height of 
3' 6" above the floor with sheet steel or wire mesh. The 
cage should be equipped with an approved foot- or hand- 
operated gong. Each hot metal crane should be provided 
with a sheet iron closet, lined with asbestos, which will 
afford a crane operator safe refuge in case of emergency. 
The cage should be constructed to protect the operator 
from spills of hot metal. A safe and convenient means of 
escape should be provided from the cage to the footwalks 
and bridge girders. The floor of the cage should be ex- 



238 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

tended on the entrance side to form a landing at least 15 
inches wide. This should be equipped with a substantial 
handrailing and toeguards. Hot metal cranes should be 
provided with a sheet metal shield, placed 6 inches below 
the bottom of the floor, to protect the operator from 
intense heat. 

Each switchboard should be enclosed in an asbestos 
lined steel closet with a swinging door that can be latched. 
The switchboard should be located at the rear of the cage. 
A circuit breaker should be installed which will open auto- 
matically, if the current fails, remaining open until closed 
by the operator. A main line switch, in addition to one 
on the crane switchboard, should be mounted above the 
cage where it can be conveniently reached from the foot- 
walk. This switch should be so constructed that it can be 
locked in the open position. Two pilot lamps should be 
provided. Rheostats and resistance units should be pro- 
tected from accidental contact or mechanical injury by 
suitable enclosures, provision being made for ventilation. 

Suitable brakes should be provided for the hoist and 
bridge travel. There should be two brakes for each hoist, 
at least one of which should be an electrical one. Mag- 
netic brakes should be encased, to prevent parts, which 
may become loose, from falling to the floor. A footbrake 
should also be provided. Each brake should be capable 
of stopping a full load at double speed, without the 
aid of other brakes. 

A limit switch should be provided for each hoist. It 
should be tripped directly from the hoist block or hook, 
and not through screw contacts. A dynamic brake should 
be used to check the speed of the motor. 

Special flexible plow steel cable, consisting of 6 strands, 
37 wires to the strand, should be used for hoisting. Chains 
should not be used. Cable which is used on hot metal 
cranes, being subjected to excessive heat, should have a 
core of soft iron instead of hemp. The diameter of hoist 
drums and sheaves should be at least thirty times the 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 239 

diameter of the cables. At least two full turns of cable 
should be wound on the drum when the hook is at the 
lowest limit. 

The hook block should be of an approved type, so 
arranged that it can be hoisted without twisting. The 
sheaves should be provided with a cable guard, to prevent 
the cable from running out of the grooves. Provision 
should be made to prevent the load from falling, in case 
the block pin should break. 

Steel spring bumpers should be placed at the ends of 
the track. Both truck wheel and trolley bumpers should 
be fastened to the girders instead of the rails. They should 
be at least ^ the diameter of the truck w^heel in height. 

Truck fenders, extending below the top of the rail, and 
projecting in front of all bridge and trolley track wheels, 
should be rigidly attached to the carriage or end frame. 
These should be shaped plow fashion, so as to push, and 
at the same time raise, any part of a person's body. 

Heavy safety lugs or brackets should be placed on 
trolle}^ frames and end carriages to limit the drop to one 
inch or less, in case a wheel or axle should break. A 
capacity plate, showing the rated safe capacity of each hoist 
in pounds, should be placed on each girder. This should 
be plainly legible from the floor. Trolley frames should be 
completely floored over. Pads should be provided for use 
with jacks and wedges when changing truck wheels. Cranes 
and cables require adequate lubrication to avoid excessive 
wear. 

A system of frequent and regular inspections and tests 
is an absolute necessity. There are many things in con- 
nection with crane equipment w^hich may become defec- 
tive or out of adjustment, such as loose bolts; loose set 
screws; loose key ways; hot bearings; worn wheel flanges; 
defective cables, sheave grooves, and gear teeth; flats on 
wheels; spreading and creeping of rails; settling of the 
runway; loose and uneven rail joints; clogged oiling de- 
vices; unadjusted motor brushes, limit switches, and many 



240 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

other defects. These conditions can only be revealed by 
careful inspection. 

Daily tests should be made of limit switches, brakes, 
and other parts. 

RULES FOR ELECTRIC CRANE OPERATORS 

1. Because of the nature of their important work, cranemen are in a posi- 
tion to help safety conditions and prevent accidents, in some respects, better than 
anyone else in the plant, and their earnest co-operation is necessary. The posi- 
tion calls for skill and watchfulness, and a craneman's freedom from accidents 
will be a factor in estimating his ability and success. While it is important to 
get the work done, it is more important to prevent accidents. Cranemen should 
take enough time in making crane movements to avoid accidents. 

2. Many of the worst accidents have occurred from hooks catching in ob- 
jects after they have been unhooked; or from cranemen raising loads before they 
are securely hooked, or the chainman's hands are free; or from raising the hooks 
before the unhooking is finished. These are some of the most important things 
that cranemen should guard against. 

3. Cranemen should enter and leave cranes by special access platforms. 
When necessary to use ladders in getting on and off cranes, never carry any 
material up or down. A hand line should be used. 

4. Keep the crane well cleaned and oiled, and in good working order, and 
report immediately, if necessary, and at least promptly after being reheved from 
duty, by written report, any needed repair on any part of the crane equipment. 
Do not fail to report anything that is out of order, or any guard that has not 
been properly replaced. 

5. While on duty, stay on the crane in readiness for orders until relieved by 
another craneman, unless excused by the proper foreman. Never sit down while 
operating the crane. 

6. Never allow men (except crane inspectors) to ride on crane load, trolley, 
cage, or on crane. Do not move the crane until such riders get off. 

7. Do not place a load in an unsafe place, nor move a load unless the hitch 
is safe; and if the load exceeds the capacity of the hoist, call upon your foreman 
for instructions. 

8. Keep a careful lookout for any flagman who may be stationed for the 
purpose of protecting the workmen on or near the runway. 

9. Under no consideration, permit the crane to bump into another crane. 

10. Do not allow the crane to bump against the buffers at the ends of the 
track. 

11. Sound the foot-gong on starting, and use it regularly as an alarm while 
carrying loads. Under no circumstances, carry any loads over men on the floor, 
or over moving cars. 

12. Do not move the crane, or lift or lower a load, except upon a hand 
signal from the one man in charge. Never move a load while swinging. Before 
starting to hoist, place the trolley over the load to prevent the load swinging 
against workmen, as it is being raised. 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 241 

13. Cranemen should be cautioned that striking jib cranes, or other objects 
will be considered as gross carelessness, and will render the craneman subject 
to discharge. 

14. \\'hen dumping sand buckets in cars, the craneman should lower the 
bucket as far as j)ossil)le. If the bucket does not freely empty, it should not l)e 
racked against the side of the car, l)ut it sliould be rolled up lengthwise in the 
car. 

15. No "horseplay " should be permittetl between craneman and chainman. 

16. Cranemen should t)e forbidden to smoke, eat or read, while the crane 
is under the direction of a foreman on the floor. 

17. Turn the controller to the "off" position before closing the main switch, 
and ojien the main switch before leaving the crane cage. The safety switch should 
always be opened and padlocked, and a danger card attached, when oiling, 
cleaning or repairing. Do not permit anyone to work on the crane until these 
precautions have been taken. 

18. ^Mlenevcr the safety, or main switch, is found open, do not close either, 
until absolutely sure that no one is on the crane or crane runway. 

19. When anyone is injured, in any way, through the instrumentality of 
a crane, the crane operator, at the time of injury, should make a full written report 
to his foreman, and also a verbal report to the foreman in charge of the floor, 
when he is relieved. 

20. Cranemen should follow signals of chainman, if not receiving instruc- 
tions from the foreman on the floor. 

21. Loads should not be moved until a signal is received from the man in 
charge of the floor. Great care should be used in watching the chaining and 
hooking, to see that the chainman's fingers are not caught. 

22. Always try a load, to see if it is securely hooked, before starting away 
with it. Be siu'e that the hook is placed at a sufficient height above the load, and 
that the ropes, cables or chains of the shng do not make an angle of less than 60° 
with the horizontal. 

23. When handling heavy loads, particularly molten metal, tes the hoist 
brake, after load has been lifted a few inches, by throwing the controller to the 
"off" position. If the brake does not securely hold the load, do not move the 
crane until it has been repaired or adjusted. Exercise great care in carrying 
loads with magnets, especially in wet weather. 

24. Never drag slings, chains, hooks or loads along the floor. See that they 
are high enough to clear all obstacles. Dangerous side pulls should he forbidden. 

25. Do not run blocks too high. When the limit switch is broken, report 
at once to the foreman. Test the limit switches each turn. 

26. Never allow load to descend rapidly. 

27. Do not suddenly throw controller to full "on" position. Move the 
controller step by step, and allow the motor to graduallj' speed up. If compelled 
to reverse controller, to stop the crane, reverse on the first point only. 

2S. If the controller should stick, the switch should be ))u11(mI out to prevent 
damage while fixing the controller. 

29. Crane operators should inspect their cranes thoroughly at least once 
each turn, and immediately report any unsafe conditions. 

30. When the crane is down for repairs, oil the crane and assist repairman. 



242 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

After completion of any work, make sure that all guards have been replaced, 
and that all gears are properly covered. Report the absence of any guard. Keep 
all loose material, bolts, nuts, etc., off cranes. See that all tools are put in their 
proper place. 

31. When repairs of any consequence are being made on the crane, it should 
be isolated from others by temporary stops to be attached to the rails, or by a 
special flagman. 

32. See that all windows are closed in case of rain. Keep a fire extinguisher 
in the crane cage at all times, and know how to use it. 

33. Never use profane or abusive language to workmen on the floor. Never 
throw anything at them. 

34. When working on the hoist, and removing armatures, shafts, etc., be 
sure to have the burden-block as low as possible. 

35. If the power goes off, all switches should be pulled out, and the con- 
troller moved to the "off" position. As soon as the pilot lamps light up (when 
the power is on again), the motors may be started. 

36. Crane operators should keep a strict lookout, at all times, for anyone 
who may be working on or about the cranes, or crane runways, and for any other 
obstruction. Where two or more cranes are operating on the same runway, 
each crane operator should be on the lookout at all times for the other. 

37. When repair work is being done on or about crane runways, the crane- 
man should not operate the crane before he has had explicit instructions from a 
person in authority in that department. He should also have a clear and distinct 
understanding between the cranemen, and the employees making such repairs, 
that the crane is going to be operated. He should not move the crane until the 
cranemen, and the employees making repairs, have placed themselves in a safe 
position. 

38. Avoid being reckless or careless. 

39. The best crane operators should be first considered for advancement. 
Men are, therefore, urged to do their work well; co-operate with the men on the 
floor, and win their confidence and good will; keep cranes clean; run them so 
as to require least repairs; keep them in repair at all times; and promptly report 
anything that is out of order. 

Locomotive Cranes. — An iron guard should be placed 
at the end of the boom, through which the cable can run. 
The opening should be small enough to prevent the thimble 
on the cable from coming in contact with the sheave wheel. 
The truck bed should be equipped with a hinged guard, 
which, when extended, will prevent anyone from being 
caught between the boiler and the truck bed. 

Each locomotive crane should be provided with auto- 
matic couplers. These should be so placed on an extension, 
when necessary, that there will be sufficient clearance be- 
tween the end of the boiler and the car to be coupled. 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 243 

Each crane should be equipped with outriggers and rail 
clamps. Water glass gauges on boilers should be provided 
with suitable guards, preferably of wire-glass. 

Indicator pointers, showing the safe load for any angle 
of the boom, should be provided. An electric indicator 
should be installed to warn the craneman in case the crane 
should tip. All gears should be completely enclosed. A 
''danger — KEEP off" sigu should be placed on both 
sides of the cab. There should be a clearance of at least 
18 inches between the bottom of the boiler and the truck 
frame. 

RULES FOR LOCOMOTIVE CRANE ENGINEERS 

1. Locomotive cranes should not be moved, except upon a signal from an 
authorized signalman. This signalman, if not a regular switchman, should be 
appointed by the superintendent of the department in which the crane is working. 
When a man is regularly employed on a crane as switchman, he should be the 
signalman. 

2. Locomotive cranes should not be swamg across a railroad track, or into 
such position that cars, moving on that track, would strike it, until the crane 
engineer and the signalman have made sure that cars are not being moved on 
that track. If there is danger of cars moving along tracks, set block to protect 
the crane during the day, and lights at night. 

3. No one except the switchman or signalman should be allowed to make 
a coupling or switch. 

4. Before hoisting, see that the rail clamps are properly fastened to the rail. 

5. Do not allow anyone to ride on the truck frame. 

6. See that all outriggers are in place, and properly blocked. If the crane 
is not protected with outriggers, block it up, wherever there is danger of tipping. 

7. See that the boom is not too low', but when traveling around the yard, 
be sure it is low enough to clear all wires. 

8. Do not allow anyone to ride on the crane. 

9. When traveling, do not carry excavating buckets on the boom. 

10. When swinging boiler of crane, watch out not to catch anyone between 
the boiler and truck. 

11. Examine your crane every turn for defects, or conditions likely to cause 
any accident, and make a written report on blanks provided. 

12. Crane engineers should use their best judgment at all times. They 
should be held responsible for the machine, and the safety of the men working 
under them. 

Monorail Systems. — Unlike ordinary traveling cranes, 
which are strictly limited to one straight run, a monorail 
track can be run from one department to another in the 



244 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



same building, or from building to building, through door- 
ways, passages, and around curves. It can be supplemented 
by various branch tracks, being joined thereto by some 
form of track switch. 

The safest form of a track switch for this purpose is 
one with a fixed tongue, which has no moving part. (Fig. 




Fig. 82 
Fixed-tongue switch for monorail track. 
Courtesy Shaw Electric Crane Company. 

82.) The great advantage of this type of switch, as com- 
pared to the old fashioned moving-tongue track switch, is 
that it does not have to be set for the desired direction of 
travel, that trolleys can run through it in all directions 
without stopping, and that there are no open ends of track 
to be guarded. It thus avoids the serious danger, ever 
present with a moving-tongue track switch, of the trolley 
brushing off the guard and falling to the ground, seriously 
injuring the operator and others below. 



HAXDLIXG AXD STORIXG :\IATERIAL 245 

Fig. 82 shows a cast web type of safety fixed-tongue 
track switch. It is a rigid, self-contained structure, com- 
prising two massive steel castings, which are clamped 
together at a planed joint of the tongue-and-groove form 
by means of four large bolts, of which only two can be 
seen in the cut. 

The operation of steering the trolley through the switch 
is as follows: On approaching the switch at which the 
operator desires to run from the main track to the spur 
track, he pulls a steering lever, which is located on the 
trolley, near the controllers. This raises a horizontal roller 
to a position in which it engages a curved rib on the under 
side of the central switch-tongue. It thus swivels the 
leading truck, thereby diverting it to the spur track. By 
a positive and very simple means, which is not dependent 
on the operator, the trailing truck is also guided to the 
spur track. No steering is necessary to return from the 
spur track to the main track, nor to run through the switch 
on the main track in either direction. This type of switch 
is a great improvement over the old style moving-tongue 
track switch. 

The monorail trolley should be equipped with a limit 
switch to prevent overhoisting, and also with curved buf- 
fers, forming a suitable guard in case of collision with other 
trolleys. A cage and seat should be provided for the oper- 
ator. The trolley should have both a motor and load brake 
and also a foot brake for the travel motion. 

Derricks. — Derricks should always be stayed by at 
least 6 guy ropes, securely fastened and symmetrically placed. 
The ropes should be of sufficient size and strength. At 
least three clips should be used in making a fastening. 
Where the rope is placed about a rock, or a wooden post, 
the sharp edges should be covered with burlap. It is im- 
portant that the derrick be securely anchored. The foot 
of the mast should be carefully mounted upon a substan- 
tial foundation. 

The turn sheave should be made of soft steel, and not 



246 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

of cast iron. If made of the latter, it might be broken by 
falling rock or by other blows. 

Sheaves should be so designed and placed as to pre- 
vent the cables from running out of the grooves. Two 
sheave blocks should never be placed at the top of a mast; 
only one should be used at this point. Two sheave blocks 
might become crossed if the boom were lifted too high. 
This would cause the cables to wear through the cheek plates, 
finally so weakening the cables that they would break. 
Sheaves should be inspected for broken or cracked flanges. 
If broken as far as the groove, the cable might be quickly 
cut by the sharp edges. 

The boom should not be subjected to excessive stresses. 
If cracks occur in a wooden boom, or if it shows signs of 
weakness, it should be immediately reinforced or replaced. 
The pin which supports the boom at the base of the mast 
should not be allowed to become seriously worn. A boom 
should never be used when it has become dangerously 
weakened. 

All parts of derricks should be frequently and carefully 
inspected by a competent rigger. Proper lubrication of 
wearing surfaces is important. Cables and guy ropes 
should be covered with a suitable dressing to prevent 
undue corrosion. Gears on hoists should be completely 
covered. There should be at least two turns of the cable 
about the drum when the hoistblock is at its lowest limit. 
Each hoist should be equipped with an emergency brake, 
foot brake, and pawl. Brakes should be kept in careful 
adjustment to insure their positive action at all times. 

There should be a definite system of signaling. This 
is especially important where the hoistman cannot see the 
hookman or the load. Instead of depending upon whistle 
signals, it is safer to station a signalman where he can 
watch the hooking, and at the same time give motion sig- 
nals to the hoistman. Hoistmen should use great caution, 
having their machine under perfect control at all times. 
Careful, experienced men should be selected for this duty. 



HAXDLIXG AXD STORING MATERIAL 247 

None but skilful and responsible men should be given 
charge of a hoist. 

Hoisting. — Foremen should know the safe working 
strength of chains, ropes, hooks, and cables, and their 
proper use and application when used as slings. All por- 
table chains, ropes, cables, hooks, and other accessories 
should be kept under lock and key when not in use. When 
issued, the foreman should always personally inspect the 
sling, making sure that it is of sufRcient strength and adap- 
table to the work at hand. All slings, hooks and acces- 
sories should be provided with number plates. A record 
of the number, size, grade, date of purchase, condition, 
tests, and dates of inspection should be kept in the office. 
In the case of hooks and chains, the record should contain 
the dates of annealing. 

An examination of all hoisting equipment should be 
made at least once a week by a regular inspector. He 
should record the condition of the equipment, and the 
date of inspection, in the office files. Defective hoisting 
equipment should be removed from the shop. If discarded, 
it should be so damaged that it cannot be again used by 
mistake. 

Wherever possible, the use of chains for hoisting pur- 
poses should be avoided. They are apt to kink, if care- 
lessly placed about a load, suddenly straightening out 
when the load is lifted. Thus they are often broken, 
causing injury to workmen. Frequent and excessive strains 
cause so-called crystallization of the metal. This serious 
condition cannot be readily detected by inspection. Flaws 
and surface wear are apt to be overlooked. The welds 
may be insecure. In this connection, it is well to remem- 
ber that a chain is no stronger than its weakest link. 
Only the best hand made, wrought iron, tested chains 
should be used. The chains should be periodically tested. 
Chains, hooks, and accessories, if continuously used, should 
be annealed every two or three months. They should be 
heated to a dull red temperature of about 525 degrees C. 



248 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

(979 F.), and then cooled in ashes. Actual annealing does 
not take place at this temperature, but the metal is suffi- 
ciently heated to remove the structural strains without 
softening the metal, which is all that is desired. A very 
slow process of cooling renders the metal too soft to with- 
stand much wear. Chains should never be twisted or 
crossed when placed about a load. They should be cov- 
ered with oil to prevent rusting. 

Wire rope slings are far preferable to chain slings. 
They can be used in most instances in lieu of the latter. 
Wire rope has the advantage that its dependability can 
usually be readily ascertained from inspection. Excessive 
wear or weakness is clearly shown by worn and broken 
wires; whereas, the reliability of chains remains a more or 
less unknown quantity. Plow steel rope of 6 strands, 19 
wires to the strand, with a hemp core, should be used. A 
soft iron core should be used where the cable is exposed to 
intense heat. Rope with 37 wires to the strand is even 
more flexible and durable than the former. All slings of the 
same size should be of equal strength, as a workman can- 
not usually discriminate between different qualities of metal. 
Wire rope should never be sharply bent at any point. 
This would cause a serious weakness. When inspecting a 
wire rope, it is advisable to partially untwist it at several 
places, permitting the inner wires to be examined. The 
inner wires may be seriously broken before any outer indi- 
cation is shown. Wire ropes should be properly lubricated, 
and covered with a suitable dressing to prevent corrosion. 

Manila rope, if used, should consist of the best quality 
long fiber hemp. It should only be used for comparatively 
light loads. It is much weaker than wire rope, and deteri- 
orates if exposed to moisture. Manila rope is easily cut, 
and for this reason, it should never be looped with wire 
rope. 

Slings should be carefully and symmetrically placed about 
loads, proper hitches being made, so there will be no op- 
portunity for the load to slip or tip. The slings should be 



HAXDLIXG AXD STORING MATERIAL 249 

protected from the sharp edges of objects which are to be 
hoisted, by means of soft wood, or some other yielding 
material. Two or more slings should be used on heavy 
loads. The stresses in the slings should be equally dis- 
tributed. The slings should be long enough to leave a 
safe distance between the load and the hook. If short 
slings are used, the stresses are greatly increased. Mem- 
bers of a sling should never make an angle of less than 60° 
with the horizontal. 

Tables, showing the loads which can be safely lifted 
by slings of several types and various sizes at different 
angles of the members, should be placed at conspicuous 
and convenient places, especially at chain racks and sup- 
ports for slings, and also near cranes. The following table, 
prepared by the National Founders' Association, indicates 
the loads which can be safely used for various sizes of ropes 
and chains at different angles: 



250 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Safe Loads for Ropes and Chains (In pounds) 

Caution: When handling molten metal, wire ropes and chains should be 
25% stronger than indicated in table. 

Note: The safe loads in table are for each single rope or chain. \^Tien 
used double or in other multiples the loads may be increased proportionately. 







When used 


When used 


When used 


When used 






straight 


at 60° angle 


at 45° angle 


at 30° angle 


Plow Steel Wire Rope 


Dia. 

V 


1,500 


1,275 


1,050 


750 




V 


2,400 


2,050 


1,700 


1,200 




¥' 


4,000 


3,400 


2,800 


2,030 


(6 strands of 19 or 37 


\" 


6,000 


5,100 


4,200 


3,000 


wires) 


V 


8,000 


6,800 


5,600 


4,000 




1 " 


10,000 


8,500 


7,000 


5,000 


If crucible steel rope is 


11" 


13,000 


11,000 


9,000 


6,500 


used reduce loads one- 


U" 


16,000 


13,500 


11,000 


8,000 


fifth 


If" 


19,000 


16,000 


13,000 


9,500 




w 


22,000 


19,000 


16,000 


11,000 




Dia. of 










Crane Chain 


iron 












Y 


600 


500 


425 


300 


(Best grade of Wrought 


r 


1,200 


1,025 


850 


600 


Iron, Hand-made, ' 


V 


2,400 


2,050 


1,700 


1,200 


Tested, Short Link 


V 


4,000 


3,400 


2,800 


2,000 


Chain) 


3 // 


5,500 


4,700 


3,900 


2,750 




7 l> 
S 


7,500 


6,400 


5,200 


3,700 




1 " 


9,500 


8,000 


6,600 


4,700 




IV 


12,000 


10,200 


8,400 


6,000 




H" 


15,000 


12,750 


10,500 


7,500 




If" 


22,000 


19,000 


16,000 


11,000 





Dia. 


Cir. 










Manila Rope 


1" 


1 " 


120 


100 


85 


60 




\" 


w 


250 


210 


175 


125 




5 '/ 

8 


2 " 


360 


300 


250 


180 


(Best Long Fiber 


3 '/ 
4 


2V 


520 


440 


360 


260 


Grade) 


I" 


2f" 


620 


520 


420 


300 




1 " 


3 " 


750 


625 


525 


375 




H" 


?>v 


1,000 


850 


700 


500 




IV 


3!" 


1,200 


1,025 


850 


600 




U" 


41" 


1,600 


1,350 


1,100 


800 




If" 


51" 


2,100 


1,800 


1,500 


1,050 




2 " 


6 " 


2,800 


2,400 


2,000 


1,400 




2V 


IV 


4,000 


3,400 


2,800 


2,000 




3 " 


9 " 


6,000 


5,100 


4,200 


3,000 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 



251 



Hooks should be forged and of the proper design. 
Laminated steel hooks are preferable for heavy loads and 
for hot metal cranes. Cast steel hooks are undesirable. 
Hooks should be properly annealed, and never tempered 
or hardened. They should bend slowly and gradually if 
overloaded, thus giving sufficient warning. They should be 
provided with handles to lessen the danger of chainmen 
injuring their hands when hooking. (Fig. 83.) Shackles, 
eyebolts, sheave blocks, clamps, and 
other accessories should receive the 
same care and attention as hooks, 
ropes, and chains. 

Safet}^ clamps and slings should 
be used wherever safety and circum- 
stances demand their use. (Fig. 84.) 
The clamps should grasp material 
by means of a positive leverage, 
the greater the load the tighter 
the grip. The face of the dogs 
should be corrugated, to afford ad- 
ditional protection against slipping. 

Fig. 85 shows an automatic 
shackle which is used in lieu of a 
hook for hoisting loads. This auto- 
matic shackle is employed where 
frequent lifts are made. It saves 
considerable time in attaching and detaching loads. Unlike 
a hook, there is no point which can catch obstructions. The 
shackle is attached to the load by simply dropping it over 
a rope, a ring, or a chain, as the case may be. The load 
is released by pressing the dogs upward as the load is 
detached. These dogs drop into place by means of gravity. 
This automatic shackle can be so made that it will not 
become detached from the load when the hoisting member 
is slack; or, it can be so designed that it will detach itself 
from the load whenever the hoisting member does become 
slack. 




Fig. 83 
Safety crane hook with auto- 
matic lock incorporated 
in handle. 

Courtesy Brown Hoisting Ma- 
chinery Company. 



252 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Sheaves, over which wire ropes pass, should be of 
sufficient diameter to avoid undue bending of the rope. 




Fig. 84 

Automatic safety clamps (patented). 

Courtesy Never-SHp Safety Clamp Co., I4I Bdwy., New York, N. Y. 




Fig. 85 

Automatic hoisting shackle. 

Courtesy Yale & Towne Mfg. Co. 

Sheaves of too small diameter cause the wires to break 
prematurely. The grooves should be of the proper size 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 



253 



and shape to properly acconiniodate the rope. The sur- 
face of the grooves should be perfectly smooth. Each 
sheave block should be provided with a cable guard to 
prevent the cable, when slack, from running out of the 
groove. Provision should be made to prevent the load 
from falling in case the block i)in should fail. A warn- 
ing sign ''keep from under the load" should be painted 
in white upon each hoist block. 




Fig. 86 

Dangerous practice of standing under a suspended load. 

Courtesy Illinois Steel Company. 

Workmen should be constantly cautioned to keep from 
under all suspended loads. (Fig. 86.) For further rules 
regarding hoisting, reference should be made to Rules for 
Electric Crane Operators and Foundry Rules. 

Conveyors and Elevators. — Footways, alongside of belt 
conveyors, should be equipped with standard hand rails 
and toeguards. Elevator boots should also be properly 
protected with hand rails and toeguards. There should be a 
clearance of at least 2\ feet on all sides of the machinery 
in the boot, and at the top of the elevator. All gears and 



254 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



sprockets should be completely enclosed. Chutes at the 
top of conveyors or elevators should be guarded with hand 
rails and toeboards. All parts of machinery and equipment 
should be carefully inspected at regular intervals. 

Docks. — Footways and bins should be guarded with 
hand rails and toeboards. All gears on machinery should 
be adequately covered. 

Unloading bridges should be equipped with some form 




Fig. 87 
Dangerous practice of riding on a suspended load. 



of automatic skew-limit device, to prevent the bridge 
from skewing too far from the pier, as might happen if 
the operator lost control, or in case of a violent windstorm. 
If skewed beyond the safe limit, the bridge would topple 
over and fall. An electrical automatic skew-limit device 
is preferable. In this case, if the bridge is skewed to the 
safe limit, the mechanism will shut off the power for mov- 
ing the bridge. At the same time it will shut off the 
current to solenoid disc brakes, allowing powerful springs 



HANDLIXC; AXD STOIUXX; :\rATKRIAL 255 

to set them. This prevents the armature of the driving 
motor, to which the wheels are geared, from turning. 
The bridge is thus effectively kept from skewing beyond 
the safe limit. 

RULES FOR DOCKS 

1. Koop out from under ore handling machinery, and from ore or broken 
I)arts of machinery which are likely to fall. 

2. Keep away from cables which are used to secure boats to th(^ dock. If 
the cable should break, the flying ends would be likely to strike you. 

3. When working in a boat with the unloaders or grabs, get into a place 
of safety when they are raised and lowered. 

4. Xo one should be permitted, under any circumstances, to ride out of a 
boat on an unloader. Before moving a car or an unloadcr, make sure that no one 
is in a position to be injured. 

5. X"© one should be permitted to operate unloaders or transfer cars, unless 
instructed by the foreman. 

6. Keep away from the electric power rails along the wiiW of the unloaders. 

7. Operators of bridges should be instructed never to leave the bridge 
unless it is blocked and clamped. 

8. Transfer car and bridge operators should exercise care to avoid collisions 
between the bridge grabs and the transfer car. 

9. After unloading cars, trestle men should see that all loose material is 
removed from the trestle. 

10. Xever go into a bin to poke around ore, rock, etc., without notifying the 
foreman. A rope from above should be tied around your body. 

11. Keep off the track on which the transfer car runs. 

12. Do no oiUng, cleaning, or repairing while the towers are in operation. 

13. When necessary to work on machinery, open the switch and lock it, 
thus shutting ofT the power. 

14. If necessary to work on the trolley line of transfer cars, shut off the 
current. 

15. Xo one should be permitted to ride in the cab with the operator of the 
transfer car. 

Storage. — Alany accidents occur through careless meth- 
ods of piling, unpiling, and storing material. Material 
should be systematically stored and piled. The piles should 
be secure, and unable to topple over or collapse. (Fig. 88.) 

Great care should be taken in piling lumber. Planks 
should be cross tied at frequent intervals, to aA^oid the 
possibility of the pile collapsing. It is also necessary to 
use great care in unpiling lumber. Foundations for piles 
should be substantial, and proper sills provided. 



256 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



In piling brick, the following rules should be observed: 

(a) Except in brick sheds, brick should not be piled 
higher than 7 feet. 

(b) The pile should be tied at every tier with alternate 
courses of headers and stretchers. 



pk 


Itr '"'^''^'^ 






— ''' ~~"~ — 1 — imJ^b 




"—*■"— ^-irr: !:r:^^H 




—^••nr- ' ■*i?'";n!z;ra[^S^ZjS^^^^B 


■TMipvi^^HlBHi jfc 







Fig. 88 
Unsafe storage of lumber. 

Courtesy Northern Furniture Company. 

(c) When the pile is over 4 feet high, it should taper 
back, from a point 4 feet high, one inch to each foot. 

(d) In unpiling, the taper should be maintained. 

(e) Under no circumstances, should brick be piled, for 
storage purposes, on scaffolds or runways. 



HANDLING AND STORING MATERIAL 257 

(/) Tie strips of wood should bo inserted wherever 
necessary. 

(g) Foremen, in charge of piHng brick, should be held 
individually responsible for the safeness of the piles. 

In pihng cement, the following rules should be observed: 

(a) Cement should not be piled more than 10 bags 
high, except in storage built for such purpose. 

(6) The first four end bags should be cross tied in two 
separate tiers up to the fifth bag, where a step back, of 
one bag in ever}^ five bags, should be made. Beginning 
with the fifth bag, only one cross tier is necessary. 

(c) The back tier, when not resting against a wall of 
sufficient strength to withstand the pressure, should be 
stepped back, one bag to every five bags, the same as the 
end tiers. 

(d) In storage, when piled between and against walls 
of sufficient strength to withstand the pressure, no cross 
tiers nor step backs are necessary; but bags should be 
piled with a slight incline against the back wall, the height 
depending upon the strength of the wall. 

(e) Cement bags, in outer tiers, should, in all cases, be 
piled wdth the mouth facing the center of the pile. 

(/) When cement is removed from a pile, the length of 
the pile should be kept at an even height, and necessary 
step backs, every five bags, should be taken care of. 

(g) All foremen, in charge of piling cement, should be 
held individually responsible for the safeness of the piles. 

Flasks, castings, and other material, should be piled in a 
safe and careful manner, and not so high that the piles will 
be likely to fall. 

Plate moulds, when piled cribbing fashion, should be 
piled not exceeding 12 high. When piling other moulds, 
the pile should not exceed 5 moulds high. Each tier should 
contain at least one less mould than the tier below. Each 
tier should be locked or blocked, to make the pile secure. 
^Moulds with butts, or stickers, or any unevonness of bottom, 
should not be left in a vertical position on the ground. 



258 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Where space permits, ingots should be piled the same 
as moulds, or may be piled cribbing fashion, if not over 5 
tiers high. Where possible, ingots should not be left to 
stand in a vertical position, unless proper barriers or sup- 
ports are provided. 

Rolls and pinions should only be piled in racks. 

Pipes, rods, and bars should be stored in substantial 
racks. Nuts, washers, bolts and similar articles should be 
stored in boxes, when on shelves, to prevent them from 
falling. Patterns, pulleys, and wheels should be stored in 
racks or upon center poles. 

Storage places should be kept in an orderly condition. 
Aisles should be kept clear of all loose material. Con- 
gested conditions should not be allowed to exist. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

CONSTRUCTION WORK 

Construction work, at best, is a hazardous occupa- 
tion. Workmen are constantly subjected to inevitable 
risks. Many of the dangers can, however, be eliminated 
or greatly diminished by observing proper precautions. 
The average contractor is often obliged to rush the work 
to complete a job in a given length of time; otherwise, the 
work, which is carried on after the time limit is passed, is 
performed at a loss. Under such conditions, the contrac- 
tor has little time to devote to the construction of tempor- 
ary guards, which would have to be torn down within a 
short period. The safet}^ of the workmen is thus menaced 
by dangerous conditions which should not exist. In scarcely 
any other line of work is there greater need of suitable safe- 
guards, and caution and watchfulness among all concerned. 

Excavations. — Excavations for buildings and other 
structures should be surrounded by a substantial railed 
fence to bar the public from the premises. Watchmen 
should be stationed at entrances to prevent any unauth- 
orized person from gaining admittance. Conspicuous ''no 
admittance" signs should be placed at all entrances. 

Excavations in dangerous ground, which is likely to 
slide or cave, should be substantiall}^ shored. Braces 
should be placed every few feet in bad ground. All trenches 
should be so protected with barriers that no one can acci- 
dentally fall into them. At night, all trenches should 
be guarded with red lanterns, placed sufficiently near 
together to offer adequate protection. 

The walls of adjacent buildings should be shored when 
there is the slightest danger of their settling or weakening. 



260 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

It is often necessary to shore an adjacent building when a 
given building is being razed. In any case, the shoring 
should, if necessary, take the weight of the wall as well 
as brace it. Strong, powerful jacks should be used, with 
properly blocked steel rails or I beams as a support. Braces 
should be so placed as to evenly distribute the pressure. 

All temporary openings for manways and hoistways in 
the street or sidewalk should be guarded with a substantial 
railing and toeboard. 

Where derricks or steam shovels are used, the need for 
caution is very great. The hoistman should not be sig- 
naled to move or hoist a load until all workmen stand 
aside in a safe position. Loads should not be directly 
carried over the men. Workmen should be warned to 
keep from under suspended loads at all times. No one 
should be allowed to ride upon a boom or a load. 

Special care should be given to the excavation of sand 
and gravel pits. Men are sometimes buried alive from 
slips and falls of gravel. The banks should be kept 
trimmed of all loose material. Workmen should not be 
allowed to shovel far enough into the bottom of a bank 
to form an overhang. A safe slope should be maintained 
at all times. Before bank trimmers start to bar down 
the top of the bank, the workmen below should be notified 
in time to place themselves in a safe position. Trees should 
be felled before the face of the bank has approached within 
15 feet of the trunks. A greater distance should be main- 
tained with large trees. If the bank approaches too near 
a standing tree, the ground is likely to slip, allowing the 
tree to fall on the men in the pit. 

Where blasting is required in the work of excavation, 
the precautions which are outlined under the Chapter on 
Explosives should be observed. 

Scaffolding. — Scantling posts should be placed plumb, 
and securely fastened to prevent spreading. Ledger boards 
should preferably be fastened to scantling posts by means 
of clamps. This type of fastening is much safer than one 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 261 

made with nails. If nails are used, at least five should be 
driven for each fastening. Put-logs should be placed at 
frequent intervals to prevent undue bending stresses in 
the planking. At least five 2" planks should be used for 
each footway. They should be cleated underneath and 
so fastened that they cannot tip or slip. The scaffolding 
should be securely tied to the building by a sufficient 
number of strongly fastened tieboards. The footway 
should be guarded with a standard handrailing 3| feet 
high, with a 12" toeboard at the bottom. This is very 
important. Where handrailings and toeboards are not 
provided, men and material are likely to fall off. Alany 
accidents result from this cause. 

Judgment should be used in selecting good stock, 
which is free from large knots, knotholes, cracks and other 
defects. Care should be taken to see that the wood has 
not been ''killed in the drying." Wood, which has been 
'' killed," is rotten and unsafe. 

The scaffolding should not be overloaded with either 
men or material, nor should it be used for storage purposes. 
Teamsters should be warned against accidentally driving 
or backing their carts against a scaffold. This might cause 
the structure to collapse. Foremen carpenters should 
never allow^ anyone to start work on a scaffold until they 
have thoroughly inspected all parts, assuring themselves 
that it is absolutely safe. 

Safety scaffolding, suspended from above, which is 
raised and lowered b}^ winches, is the safest tA^pe. This is 
of great value in filling in and facing the walls of steel 
framed buildings. Fig. 89 shows a view of one of these 
scaffolds. It is built in overlapping sections which are 
hoisted together by means of the winches. These may be 
securely locked against slipping by means of pawls. Scaf- 
folds should also be provided with a substantial cover. 

In five years, in New York alone, 660 deaths were 
caused by falls from new buildings, while 177 deaths 
were caused by falls from the old wooden form of scaffolds 



1 



262 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



supported by horses and cantilevers. These old type 
stagings should not be used on buildings of any height. 
In two years, 319 buildings were erected with these 




Fk;. 89 

''Patent" safety scaffolding. 

Courtesy Patent Scaffolding Com-pany, New York. 

patent scaffolds where more than 8,265 machines were 
employed, and not one man was injured from a cause 
which could be attributed to the scaffolding. 

The continuous platform is supported at intervals of 
approximately 10 feet by a safety scaffolding machine, 



COXSTRUCTIOX WORK 263 

composed of two drums around which steel cables are 
roved, and the necessary supporting members, including a 
put-log which serves to support the planks forming the 
platform. The upper ends of the cables are securely 
attached to horizontal steel I beams or outriggers, which 
are fastened by means of U shaped anchor bolts to the 
framework of the building. The outriggers support the 
continuous suspended platform, w^hich is raised or low^ered 
by operating the two levers on each machine, thus rotating 
the drums. The winding force is applied to each drum by 
the lever arm. A pawl is mounted thereon, which engages 
one of the ratchet wheels on the sides of the drum. The 
platform can be raised or lowered by one man. Moreover, 
the platform can be operated in sections, w^hich is often 
important w^hen temporarily short of material, or w^hen 
the outline of the building is irregular. 

Swing scaffolds should be constructed wdth bent iron 
holders at each end, upon which the planks rest, and which 
contain sockets in which a toeboard and guard rail may 
be placed. The planking should be secured to prevent 
slipping or tipping. Toeboards are important to prevent 
pails and other articles from falling off. The supporting 
ropes should always be inspected before use. The scaf- 
fold should be equipped with two winches, one at each 
end. These machines should be of an approved type, so 
designed that there will be no danger of the rope accidentally 
unwinding. 

Sidewalks. — Covered passageways should be built over 
sidewalks for the use of the public. They should be con- 
structed of large posts and caps, wdth a cover consisting of 
two layers of 2" planks. Where such tunnels are not 
used, the sidewalks should be completely railed off. 

Footways and Runways. — Footways and runways 
should preferably be constructed with not less than five 
12" planks, at least 2" thick. There should be an uneven 
number of planks where wheelbarrows are used, so that 
the wheel of the barrow may run on the middle plank 



264 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

instead of over a crack between two planks. If the wheel 
is run over a crack between planks, it is likely to become 
caught, thus dumping the load. Footways and runways 
should be guarded with a substantial railing and toeboard. 
Planks should be cleated underneath, and fastened to prevent 
slipping or tipping. Inclined footways should be provided 
with cross cleats to prevent workmen from slipping. No 
attempt should be made to wheel material in a barrow up 
or down a steep runway. Planks of footways should be 
nailed at the ends to prevent them from projecting slightly 
upward. If not securely nailed down at the ends, the 
projections will cause persons to stumble. Footways 
should be free from holes, splinters, protruding nails and 
unevenness. 

Floors. — While a building is under construction, floors 
should be temporarily built of planks. A floor should be 
completely planked over before another story is erected. 
The planks should be secured to prevent them from slip- 
ping or tipping. They should be placed near together to 
prevent tools and other articles from falling through the 
cracks upon workmen below. All floor openings should 
be guarded with a substantial railing and toeboard. Door 
openings in the side walls and entrances to elevator shafts 
should be kept guarded with railings. Floors should be 
kept free from boards containing protruding nails and 
from other debris. In razing a building, it should be torn 
dov.m one story at a time. The uppermost story should 
be completely torn down before any part of the story 
underneath is demolished. 

Stairways. — During the course of construction of a 
building, stairways with safe temporary treads and hand 
rails should be provided. Stairway openings should be 
guarded with a handrailing and toeboard. Stairways 
should be used in preference to ladders wherever practicable. 
Stairways should be kept free from all loose material and 
obstructions. 

Ladders. — Ladders, which are built on the job, should 



CONSTRUCTIOX WORK 265 

be constructed of rungs at least ]" by 2 J", inset flush with 
the uprights. Stringers should be at least 2" X 4". The 
rungs should be secured by at least 3 nails at each end. 

Ladders should be inclined at an angle of about 15 
degrees from the vertical. They should be securely fastened 
at the top by means of converging cleats which are nailed 
to the planking. They should never be fastened by toe- 
nailing alone. They should be braced at the bottom to 
prevent slipping. 

Construction ladders are usually subjected to a great 
amount of wear. Broken and cracked rungs should be 
immediately repaired. In damp places, the nails rust 
quickly and the wood wears in a short time. Under these 
conditions a ladder will soon deteriorate. Therefore, it is 
necessary to make frequent inspections of all ladders. 

Roofs. — ■ Before shingling, horizontal cleats, spaced at 
convenient intervals, should be nailed to the roof. These 
will afford a means of support for the carpenter. Safety 
belts and lifelines should be provided for men when work- 
ing on steep roofs. Workmen should be forbidden to throw 
material from roofs, except into a space on the ground which 
has been railed off for this purpose. No material, which 
might be blown down, should be left on roofs. 

Protruding Nails. — These are a constant menace in 
construction work. Foremen should make a special effort 
to prevent workmen from leaving boards about which con- 
tain protruding nails. Many cases of blood-poisoning, and 
some of lockjaw, result from workmen stepping on protrud- 
ing nails. The nails should be clinched over, or entirely re- 
moved. The ends of the nails may be easily turned over 
with the claw of a hammer or with pliers, and then 
hammered into the wood. 

When the heads of barrels, kegs, or covers of boxes are 
taken off, the nails which held the heads should be removed, 
otherwise workmen may lacerate their hands or arms in 
removing material. 

It is just as important to take these precautions about 



266 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

a factory as it is on construction work. Any scratch 
or cut, no matter how shght or insignificant, should be 
immediately treated with antiseptic to prevent blood- 
poisoning. Infection is just as likely to result from 
minute scratches or punctures, as from cuts from which a 
considerable amount of blood flows. The minor scratches, 
cuts, and bruises are often the dangerous ones. 

Floors, aisles, footways, drives, and footpaths about the 
buildings should be kept clear of debris of all kinds. Where 
there is a large quantity of loose boards with protruding 
nails, they should be carefully piled with nails facing down- 
ward. Men should wear thick leather gloves in handling 

and piling boards or other 

rough or sharp material. 

Heavily soled shoes are 

especially important in 

^'"""^^^7^^^§jfB I preventing injuries from 

l||||^^^^^BH^^^te&|ft I protruding nails. Protrud- 

I ^ ,p ^^^^ I jj^g nails should also be 

removed from posts, 
.. .. w ^^'^' '^.? . . .. beams, and walls. 

Knuckle guard for handles of wheelbarrow. ,^^, ,, rr-n 

Wheelbarrows. — The 

Courtesy National Founders^ Association. , ,, „ i m 

handles of wheelbarrows 
should be equipped with suitable guards to prevent the 
hands of workmen being bruised or crushed in case they are 
jammed against any obstruction. (Fig. 90.) 

Waste Disposal. — Waste or debris should never be 
carelessly thrown to the ground. Properly constructed 
chutes should be built. These should lead to a bin about 
10 feet above the ground, which is provided with a gate. 
The debris may then be dumped or shoveled into a cart 
and hauled away. If the waste is thrown directly to the 
ground, a space should be substantially fenced off for its 
reception. Warning signs should be placed on the fence 
to keep workmen away. 

Machinery. — Special attention should be given to 
guarding belts and pulleys, gears, and chains and sprockets 



CONSTRUCTION WORK 267 

on machinery which is used for construction purposes. 
Rip saws, cut-off saws, and jointers should be equipped with 
guards at the point of operation. Glasses should be pro- 
vided for the operators of emery wheels. 

Steel Workers. — The erection of structural steel is one 
of the most hazardous classes of work, hence the pressing 
need of selecting fit men and of insisting that the work be 
done in the safest manner possible. A steel worker should 
be fearless, sober, alert, agile, keen, and in perfect physical 
and mental condition to cope with the dangers which con- 
stantly surround him. Steel workers should be between 
the ages of 23 and 40. They should use safet}^ belts when 
guiding girders and when riveting. Safety belts should 
receive a daily examination. 

Workmen should not be allowed to ride on derrick booms 
nor upon loads. They should be cautioned against taking 
any unnecessary risks. The risks are sufficiently great 
without needlessly increasing them. 

Hot rivets should not be tossed carelessly to riveters. 
This is a dangerous practice unless the distance is short 
and a large pail is used to catch the rivets. Rivets should 
never be thrown upward to men above on the steel frame- 
work. They should be drawn up in a pail with a hand 
line. All rivets should be hammer tested when set. 

Safety clamps should be used in handling steel beams, 
girders, and other parts. Hookmen should see that the 
beams are properly hooked and balanced. The balance 
should be tested before starting to hoist. Hoistmen should 
have a direct view of beams and columns when placing 
them. Great care is necessary in placing beams on their 
seats or lugs in order not to injure the steel workers who 
are stationed to guide and fasten them. 

Safety should not be sacrificed for time. Foremen can 
do much toward preventing careless and unsafe practices. 
Workmen should not be allowed to fool or indulge in any 
demonstrative acrobatic feats or disputes when on duty. 



268 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS 

1. Before placing any workmen upon a scaffolding, the foreman carpenter 
should thoroughly inspect all parts, to see that sufficient nails are holding the 
ledger boards, and that there are no defects in any part of the structure. Clamps 
are preferable to nails for use in fastening ledger boards to scanthng posts. 

2. Before going upon a scaffold of any description, every employee should 
see for himseK that the scaffold and supports are properly and safely constructed. 
Sufficient time should be allowed to each employee to make this examination. 
Employees should be forbidden to work upon any scaffold, until they have 
satisfied themselves, by such personal examination, that the scaffold is safe. 

3. Carpenters should use judgment in selecting good, clear stock, free from 
large knots, holes, cracks or other defects. Many accidents are caused by 
defective material breaking or failing, allowing workmen to fall. 

4. Scantling posts should be set plumb, and secured with a sufficient number 
of ledger boards. 

5. Scaffolding should be securely fastened to the building by a sufficient 
number of tieboards or ropes. 

6. There should be a sufficient number of put-logs (same applies to scant- 
ling posts), spaced near enough together to eliminate any dangerous bending 
stresses in the planking. 

7. Footways and runways should be constructed of at least five 2 " x 8 " 
or 2 " X 10 " planks — never less. The planks should be cleated underneath at 
the ends and middle, and securely fastened to prevent slipping. 

8. All footways should be guarded by a substantial railing, 3| feet high, 
with a toeboard at least 10 inches high. 

9. Never overload a scaffold. 

10. Drivers should be cautioned, by the superintendent or foreman, not to 
hit any part of scaffolds, ladders, etc., with their carts or trucks. 

11. Swing stagings should be equipped with a guard rail and toeboard, and 
a patent hoisting machine should be used. Ladders should not be used as a sup- 
port for swing stagings. The planking for the scaffolds should be secured, and 
should cover the entire space between the supporting ropes. Examine all sup- 
porting ropes before using the swing staging. In large operations, or wherever 
work is done overhead, a patent scaffolding should be used, which should be 
provided with a substantial cover, to protect the men from falling material. 

12. No material of any kind should be piled on scaffolds for storage purposes. 

13. Never place men at work under masons, if it can be avoided. If it is 
necessary to do so, provide a covering for the men working below. 

14. All construction ladders, if made on the job, should have all the rungs 
(at least ^ " x 2 " in size) inserted into sockets, and fastened by three nails at 
each end. Ladders should be securely fastened to the scaffolding by means of 
converging cleats, nailed to the planking of the footway. They should never 
be fastened by toe-naiUng alone. Ladders should be secured at the bottom to 
prevent slipping. 

15. If it is impracticable to fasten a ladder, when on a small repair job, get 
someone to hold it. 



CONSTRUCTIOX WORK 269 

16. See that all open spaces in floors arc eitluM- guanh^l, or covcM-cd witli 
planking. Tho planks should be placed so near together that no tools or nuif (Mini 
can fall through the cracks, and so that the planks cannot tip up on end. 

17. See that all permanent floor oi)enings, stair openings, door openings, 
and entrances to elevator shafts, are kept properly protected, at all times, with 
substantial railings. 

18. Allow no boards, containing i)r()truding nails, to remain about 
the floors, or footways in the yard. See that the nails are either removed or 
chnched over, or the boards placed in separate i)iles, with the nails extending 
downward. 

19. Do not allow dc))ris of any kind to collect in working places, or in the 
yard. See that it is kept in separate piles, and properly disi)osed of. 

20. Passageways should be constructed over sidewalks, in order that the 
pubhc may pass by in safety. The passageway should be built of heavy timber, 
and completely covered with 2-inch planks. 

21. All runways should be constructed with an imev(>n number of planks, 
such as three or five, so that the wheel of the barrow may be run on the board 
in the center; otherwise, it is likely to catch between the boards, and wedge 
them apart, dumping the load. 

22. Never run with a wheelbarrow on a runway. 

23. See that wheelbarrows are provided with guards, placed on the handles, 
to prevent workmen from crushing or bruising their hands, should the handles 
hit obstructions. 

24. Never drag a wheelbarrow Ix'hind you, when on a staging or runway. 

25. In wTccking a building, the floors and walls of the uppermost story 
should be razed completely, before any part of the lower story is taken down. 

26. All temporary stairways should be provided with safe temporary treads 
of sufficient width; also, handraihhgs, and a railing on the sides of the stair 
openings. 

27. When excavation is being carried on at any place, it should be pro- 
tected by barriers, and at night by lights. 

28. All excavations, that are likely to cave in, should be shored up. 

29. Banks, in sand or gravel pits, should be kept constantly barred dowTi, 
and trimmed of all loose material. Bank trimmers should notify men working 
below them. 

30. Never allow an}- material to be thrown to the ground, unless a space 
has been completely railed olT, with warning signs posted on the fence. It is safer 
to throw the material do^^^l properly constructed chutes to a bin below, which 
is provided with a gate. 

31. Care should be used in making safe fastenings for all loads to be hoisted, 
and in adapting the proper slings to the material at hand. Care should also be 
taken to see that there is no chance of the load tipping or slipping. 

32. Hooks, with the opening between the point and shank l)arred, should 
be used when hoisting material in tul)s, or other receptacles, or when there 
is danger of the bail or sUng unhooking, on account of the load catching on 
obstructions. 

33. Be sure that the signals, used when hoisting material, are thoroughly 
understood. 



270 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

34. Operators of hand operated hoists should have the load under control 
at all times, and should be careful not to lower too fast. 

35. No load, even though it be light, should be allowed to descend so rapidly 
as to make the handle of the winch revolve at high speed. 

36. Never hoist concrete, bricks or other material in wheelbarrows, through 
the air. 

37. When chipping or lumping, always wear goggles; and place a portable 
screen to prevent chips from flying into the eyes of workmen, or other persons, 
who may be working near, or passing by. 



CHAPTER XIX 

STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROADS 

The annual loss of life and limb from railroad acci- 
dents is appalling. It is gratifying to know, however, that 
a very large percentage of these accidents are preventable; 
that many companies are actively engaged in waging an 
unrelenting campaign to eliminate accidents; and that 
their efforts are meeting with unusual success. 

Education best insures safety and efficiency. Training 
the employee is the key to the problem. It is the human 
element which has the most important bearing upon the 
case. Never can the railroads meet with success in reduc- 
ing accidents until the employee is educated and versed 
in safety; nor until he is trained to avoid unsafe practices 
and to abandon the habit of taking chances. 

Employees of railroads are so accustomed to the dan- 
gers which surround them, that they constantly indulge in 
unsafe practices. The employee must be educated to think 
of safety and to practice it, not alone for personal securit}^, 
but for the welfare of his fellow employees and for others 
whose safety depends upon his judgment and caution. 
Discipline is an important element in the correction of 
unsafe practices. Employees who repeatedly indulge in 
dangerous practices should be summarily dismissed from 
service. This will serve as an impressive warning to others. 
Safety, and safe men, above all, should be demanded by 
those in authority. 

Railroads may continue to eliminate grade crossings, 
buy steel cars, guard machinery, and install automatic 
safety contrivances, but they can never eliminate accidents 
by merely improving ph3'sical conditions. This does not 



272 PRACTICAL SAFETY IMETHODS AXD DEVICES 

mean that the improvement of physical conditions should 
slacken; on the contrary, activity in this direction should 
increase. Of still greater importance, however, is the 
creation of a railroad organization, thoroughly trained and 
drilled in safety. 

Efficient safety committees should be organized. 
Through this medium of co-operation, results may be 




Fig. 91 

Dangerous practice of attempting to mount foot-board of approaching engine 

while standing between the rails. 

Courtesy Norfolk & Western Railway Company. 

obtained by education, supervision and corrective discipline. 
Employees should be required to familiarize themselves 
with the rules of the company, with the idea that they 
will be called upon to pass an examination at any time. 
Examinations should frequently be held. These will tend 
to insure active remembrance and efficient execution. 
Employees should be intelligently supervised. Lives should 
not be weighed against dollars and time, nor jeopardized 
by reckless and careless practices. 



STEAM AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 



273 



Efficienc}^ tests should be made by superintendents, 
trainmasters, and road foremen of engines, of all employees 
whose work is in any way connected with the active oper- 
ation of trains. These tests will train the men to closely 
observe the rules. The tests should be conducted in dif- 
ferent ways, embracing all the primary hazards incident to 
the movement of trains. 




Fig. 92 

Result of attempting to mount foot-board of approaching engine 

while standing between the rails. 

Courtesy Xorfolk & Western Railway Company. 

During the year 1913, more than 15,000 danger signal 
efficiency tests were made by the Southern Pacific System. 
The average percentage of efficiency was 99.56 %. At 
different points of the system, and at various times during 
the year, switch lights on straight tracks were reversed; 
automatic blocks set at ''stop"; fusees lit and thrown near 
the track; markers and indicators changed; flagmen tested 
on proper train protection involving promptitude, distance, 



274 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



and use of fusees and torpedoes; and various other tests 
made, all without the previous knowledge on the part of 
the train and engine crews tested. Out of 2,286 tests, 
which were made in one month, there was not a single 
instance in which the employees failed to observe and 

comply with the rules 
and instructions, the 
average efficiency being 
100%. 

In order to deter- 
mine the primary cause 
of grade crossing acci- 
dents, and the remedy 
therefor, the Southern 
Pacific System inaugu- 
rated observation tests 
at various times and 
places of automobile 
drivers, teamsters, and 
pedestrians. Inall, 25,- 
296 of these observation 
tests were made. It was 
discovered that 58 % of 
all three classes neither 
stopped nor looked in 
either direction for an 
approaching train. In 
the case of automobile drivers, 69 % neglected these pre- 
cautions. With a view toward remedying these con- 
ditions, this information was given wide publicity 
through the press. The matter was also brought to the 
attention of automobile clubs. Enginemen and trainmen 
are constantly impressed with the necessity of keeping a 
sharp lookout and of sounding advance signals when ap- 
proaching grade crossings. Their attention is also directed 
to the importance of compliance with the rules in reference 
to switching and other movements. 




Fig. 93 
It is unnecessary to go between cars to couple 
or uncouple them. The handle, shown more 
completely in Fig. 100, should be used. 

Courtesy Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 



STEAM AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 275 

Lodges of trainmen and enginemen should be regularly 
visited by an assistant to the general manager for the 
purpose of delivering addresses dealing with all the hazards 
connected with the operation of railroads. An exhibit car 
containing models, charts, photographs of unsafe practices 
and dangerous places, and other safety devices, should be 
maintained in charge of a board of examiners. This car 
should continually travel over all the lines of the com- 
pany. It should be used for the education of employees, 
particularly those engaged in train and engine service. 
Examinations should supplement this educational work. 
]\Ioving pictures and stereopticon views of dangerous 
practices should be used to interest employees. These 
methods will establish a spirit of co-operation between 
emplo3'ees and officials, resulting in a unification of effort 
in the promotion of safety. 

Tracks, bridges, rolling stock, structures, and machinery 
should be maintained at a high standard. Grade crossings 
should be eliminated, wooden coaches should be replaced 
with steel cars, automatic block signals and interlocking 
systems should be installed, double tracks should be built, 
curves should be reduced, heavier rails should be used, 
and various other activities should be continued to make 
safe railroad S3^stems. 

Safety on Locomotives. — Engineers usually are, and 
always should be, interested in safety. Those that are 
not have no place as masters of locomotives. None but 
a temperate, intelligent and reliable man should be given 
charge of a locomotive. 

The engineer should keep a perfect lookout from the 
cab. On all curves leading to the left, it is necessary for 
the fireman to keep a lookout from his side of the cab. 
The fireman should be made to realize his responsibility 
in the safe movement of the train. Firing should be done 
on straight stretches of track, not on curves. When round- 
ing curves, the attention of the fireman should be devoted 
to keeping a sharp lookout. 



276 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

The engineer and fireman should refrain from arguments 
or conversation when on duty. This rule should be persis- 
tently followed until, finally, silence will become a habit. 
The engineer should train his fireman to refrain from talk- 
ing to the flagman whom he may pick up on the engine. 
The fireman should realize that he is the engineer of to- 
morrow, and that it will be to his credit, as well as to that 
of the company, for him to be thoughtful, watchful, and 
efficient. He should be agreeable, alert, and willing to 
render all necessary assistance. The engineer should set a 
high standard of efficiency and watchfulness for the fireman. 

The engineer should take pains to make smooth, easy 
stops, free from shock, using the same care in starting to 
avoid injury to passengers. He should not attempt to 
make up lost time by driving quickly in and out of a sta- 
tion regardless of all rules. 

The matter of distinct whistling, when approaching 
highway crossings, is important. Engineers should also be 
careful to give a sufficient warning signal to section men 
and others, who seemingly do not notice the train, and 
are likely to be hit, without waiting until it is too late. 

In approaching all hazardous places and interlocking 
plants, where the vision is in any way obstructed, the 
brakes should be applied in ample time to insure safe 
stopping of the engine, in case the track should not be 
clear. This same practice should be carried out when 
approaching stations where passengers are likely to get 
beyond the clearing point of the station platforms, and 
also at points where two trains have a meeting at nearly 
the same time. 

The coal on the tender should be so placed that it 
cannot roll off, causing injury to persons near the track. 

After engines start to make steam, gauge cocks should 
be tried to test water gauges, in order to be sure that the 
water level in the gauge glass is not deceptive. The low 
water alarm should also be tested. 

In oil burning locomotives, should the fire go out, it 



STEAM AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 277 

should be relighted with a torch as in the first operation. 
The fireman should stand well away from in front of the 
fire door, protecting his head and face from a possible 
explosion. Employees should never carry open lights 
around manholes on oil tanks of locomotive tenders. 
Fuel oil should not be allowed to overflow on top of loco- 
motive tenders when filling them. Special attention should 
be given to the drippings of oil burning engines, especially 
in the round house. 

Firemen should remain in their proper position in cabs 
while locomotives are entering or approaching stations, 
and also at points where water, coal or oil is to be taken 
on. They should constantly ring the bell when the engine 
is stopping or starting, approaching crossings, and moving 
about the yard or near any persons. Firemen should 
not be allowed to leave the cab until the engine comes to 
a full stop. 

When going through tunnels, where men are working, 
cylinder cocks should not be opened. They should be 
allowed to drain before starting out of the round house. 
They should then be closed until clear of the building. 
Care should be taken to see that they are not opened in 
the vicinity of employees. 

Squirt hose should not be hung in the gangway of 
locomotives. It may be mistaken for a hand hold when 
boarding the engine. 

When on the road, care should be taken in sanding 
engines to prevent any possibility of setting fire to dry 
grass. 

Five minutes before the arrival of trains at points 
where cars or engines are to be cut in or out of passenger 
trains, the rear brakeman should open the steam heat 
valve at the rear of the last car, allowing the steam and 
condensation to escape. Enginemen should close the steam 
heat line with the fountain valve. This drains the piping, 
avoiding the possibility of switchmen and carmen being 
scalded when couphng cars. 



278 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Hostlers should be held strictly responsible for the con- 
dition of all engines at the time they leave them in the 
round house or designated track. They should be left 
with the throttle tightly closed, the reverse lever in center 
position, the cylinder cocks open, blocks under the wheels, 
and dampers and fire door tightly closed. The firing valve, 
tank valve, and blower (oil engines) should be closed, unless 
the engine is left under steam in charge of an engine 
watchman. 

When placing an engine or cars on any track, care 
should be taken to see that they are left in a position 
which allows sufficient clearance to any adjacent track or 
building. 

RULES FOR LOCOMOTIVE ENGINEERS 

1. Never, under any circumstances, disobey orders or signals. 

2. Do not take any unnecessary risks; there are too many necessary ones. 

3. Never talk to anyone while running an engine. Train your fireman to 
do likewise. 

4. Remember that most accidents occur at or between switches, and that 
the majority of them occur at night. 

5. Never use liquor, even when off duty. 

6. Be alert at all times, especially Vv^hen approaching signals, switches, 
stations, crossings, and when running through yards. Use extra care at night. 

7. Train your fireman to be on the lookout, especially when taking a left 
hand curve. Be sure that he constantly rings the bell at all dangerous places, 
where persons are likely to be injured. 

8. Never allow your mind to wander from your work. 

9. Train yourself to constantly think of what you are doing. 

10. Never go on duty unless you are physically and mentally qualified to 
do so. 

11. Never become angry or worried. Your mind should be solely concen- 
trated on your work. 

12. Don't become grouchy with your fireman. Be pleasant and agreeable. 
Remember that you are a promoted fireman. 

13. Never allow a third man in the cab. 

14. Never start your engine unless the fireman is ringing the bell. 

Hot Boxes. — The journals on all cars should receive 
constant and thorough inspection, to insure that they are 
sufficiently lubricated to prevent the possibility of a hot- 
box. Should a hot-box occur unnoticed, the bearing would 
likely burn out and the support give way, possibly causing 



stea:\i and electric railroads 279 

a wreck. On a long freight train, as one of 75 cars, a hot- 
box is Hkely to remain unnoticed until the bearing burns 
out, whereas, on a shorter train, as one of 40 cars, it is 
often detected in time. Constant vigilance is necessary 
to prevent hot-boxes. 

Automatic Block Signals. — Signals, if practicable, 
should be placed either over (on a signal bridge), or upon 
the right of, and adjoining the track to which they refer. 
Semaphore arms, which govern, should be placed to the 
right of the signal mast, as seen from an approaching 
train. A mast may have a cross piece on which two up- 
rights (no more) may be mounted on which to place sig- 
nals. One upright may be a stub, to indicate that the 
corresponding track has no governing signals. Not more 
than one track should intervene between a bracket signal 
mast and the track for which its left upright carries a 
signal arm. There should be a definite place for the flags 
and hand lanterns when used for signals; they should be 
fixed by a flag socket and a lantern hook on the side of 
the signal station toward the direction of an approaching 
train, and convenient for the operator to reach from one 
of the windows. 

High speed movements should be governed by high sig- 
nals and low speed movements by low signals. Not more 
than two high speed signals should be displayed on one 
mast; the top arm to govern unrestricted speed, and the 
lower arm to govern all other high speeds. All low speed 
movements should be governed by one arm low signals of 
dwarf construction. A distance signal should be provided 
for each high speed route. ^^Red" should be the '^ color" 
stop indication, and the ''horizontal" position of the arm 
should be the ''position" stop indication for all home 
signals. A mark of distinction should be made between 
automatic block signals and all other home signals, whether 
interlocking, train-order or manually operated block sig- 
nals. Home block signals should be provided at all inter- 
locking plants used as block stations. 



280 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

All mechanically operated high speed signals should be 
pipe connected. Low speed signals may be wire con- 
nected. One distance signal only should be provided for a 
high speed route, and when ''clear/' it should mean that 
all high speed home signals along that route through the 
interlocking plant, including the home block signal, are 
''clear." Every movement within the limits of an inter- 
locking plant should be governed by an interlocking signal. 
In view of the recent trend of development of the art, the 
following recommendations are made as desirable im- 
provements on present practice: (a) that a red light shall 
be the night indication for "stop," a yellow light for 
"caution," and green for "clear"; (6) that day indications 
shall be given by semaphore signals in the upper right 
hand quadrant; (c) that the semaphore arm horizontal 
shall indicate "stop," inclined upward 45 degrees "caution," 
and inclined upward 90 degrees, or vertical, "proceed." 

Crossings. — Grade crossings should be abolished as fast 
as practicable, as these are the source of many fatal train 
accidents. All grade crossings should be equipped with 
conspicuous "railroad crossing" signs. Gates should 
be installed at crossings where there is considerable traffic. 
Flagmen should be placed on duty to operate them. All 
grade crossings should be protected with automatic bell 
signals. 

Tracks should be completely fenced off on each side all 
along the right-of-way. 

Tracks along the streets in a town or city should be 
abolished. They are especially dangerous on account of 
small children who are carelessly allowed to play in the 
streets. In this case, the speed of trains should be limited 
to 10 miles an hour. 

Where factory employees pass to and fro from build- 
ings on either side of the tracks, or where they cross tracks 
in large numbers before and after working hours, bridges 
or viaducts should be provided. (Fig. 94.) Direct entrances 
upon a track should be guarded. 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROADS 



281 



City stations, other than terminals, are now constructed 
with a subway underneath the tracks, which runs from the 
station to side stairways leading up to the platform of 
each track. This does away with the necessity of passen- 
gers crossing the tracks on their way to and from trains. 

Flagmen. — Flagmen of good e3^esight and hearing 
should be selected. They should make it a point to close 




Fig. 94 
Viaduct for safety of employees. 
Courtesy Illinois Steel Company. 

the gates in sufficient time before the approach of an}' train, 
to insure a wide margin of safety. They should warn pedes- 
trians against walking around or under the gates after being 
closed. They should be alert and watchful at all times. 

Switches and Frogs. — Stub switches should never be 
used, especially on main lines. It is safer not to use them 
in a plant yard or siding. The gap in the rails is always 
sufficient to cause considerable jar to rolling stock. When 
operated as a trailing switch, a derailment is inevitable, if 
the switch is misplaced. 



282 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Split switches should be used. These leave one main 
rail unbroken. The point rails are tied together with tie- 
rods. They are held in place by a very stiff spring which 
will yield sufficiently to permit the wheels to remain on 
the rails if a train trails through with the switch misplaced. 
The rails of the frog are always made straight, therefore 
the lead rails between the switch point and the frog must 

be curved to a circular arc 
which is tangent to both the 
switch rail and the wing 
rail. All switches should be 
provided with a locking de- 
vice. Switch stands should 
be so constructed that the ball 
will be thrown parallel to the 
rails. 

Spring rail frogs, having 
one wing rail (the one con- 
necting with the main rail) 
movable, and yet normally 
pressing against the frog 
point, should be used. There 
should be no gap to be passed 
over by the wheels running 
on the main track. Guard 
rails should be so placed that, 
when the wheels are running 
through the frog to the 
switch, the guard rail opposite the frog will force the op- 
posite wheel to run in its proper line, thus causing the 
inside of the flange of the wheel running through the frog 
to press against the wing rail, forcing it back so as to 
leave a sufficient opening between the wing rail and the 
frog point for the wheel to pass through. 

A switch, which permits the use of unbroken main rails, 
necessarily lifts a car to a vertical height somewhat greater 
than the depth of the wheel flange. As this must be ac- 




FiG. 95 
Folding car blocker for protecting 
tracks on an incline or at entrance 
to building. Blocker is shown 
locked in raised position. When 
not in use, it is thrown to the right 
to clear the rail. 

Courtesy Commonwealth Steel Company. 



STEA^r AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 



283 



complished within a distance of a very few feet, it is im- 
possible to use such switches for high speed. These devices 
have not come into common use. 

All switches, frogs, and guard rails should be filled with 
steel or wooden blocks to prevent anyone's feet being 
caught in the wedge. (Fig. 9G.) This is important, as many 
accidents have resulted from a person being unable to 
release his foot before being run over. 

Derails. — Suitable derails should be installed at the 
proper point on spur tracks or sidings with a grade. 
The purpose of a derail is to pre- 
vent a freight car from rolling from 
the spur track or siding upon the 
main track, in case the brakes do 
not hold. 

Buffers. — Buffers should be 
placed at the ends of all spur tracks, 
especially where the track termi- 
nates on trestles, banks, in front of 
buildings, or down grade inclines, 
and in stations, to prevent the train 
backing off the track, causing damage 
or injury to persons or property. 
The buffers should be substantially 
constructed, and well braced or 
stayed. Reinforced concrete buffers 
are most satisfactory. 

Clearance. — There should be sufficient clearance be- 
tween spur tracks or sidings and adjacent buildings or 
structures, to prevent workmen being caught and crushed 
at such places by moving cars. Danger signs and guard 
rails should be placed where the clearance is small. The 
space between the track and the buildings should be cov- 
ered over with boards or metal plates, inclined at an angle 
of 45 degrees, to prevent anyone walking or standing 
between the track and the building. 

Overhead structures should be at least 7 feet above 




Fig. 96 
Steel foot-block for protec- 
ting guard rails and frogs. 

Courtesy Commonwealth Steel 
Company. 



284 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

the highest freight cars. If the clearance is less, warning 
ropes, spaced not greater than six inches apart, should be 
suspended over the track one or two hundred feet on either 
side of the overhead obstruction. 

Cattle Guards. — A cattle guard consists of a winged 
fence on each side of the track, extending from the right- 
of-way fences to the end of the ties; also, aprons consist- 
ing of short sections of fence set parallel to the track at 
the track end of the winged fences; also, a pit or rough 
surface on which cattle will refuse to walk, extending for a 
short distance, about 8 feet, the entire width of the track 
between the outer ends of the ties. 

Surface guards are preferable to pits, on account of 
the disastrous consequences which might be caused by a 
derailment at the guard, due to the failure of the pit 
structure. A surface guard should cover the ties with 
some one of a variety of wooden or metal slats or tiles, 
shaped like an inverted V. It should be so designed that 
it will not catch dragging brake chains or other rigging, 
and should not endanger employees who must walk over 
it. Barbed wire should not be used. The guard should 
be so built that it cannot catch and hold cattle which 
attempt to cross it. 

Transfer Pits. — These should be guarded with a sub- 
stantial iron pipe railing to prevent employees from get- 
ting into the pit and becoming crushed by the tables. 

Trestles. — All trestles should be equipped with hand- 
rails and toeboards, to afford a safe footway, when neces- 
sary to use the trestle as such. The footway should always 
be close boarded. 

Open spaces between the ties should be completely 
covered where the trestle or bridge runs over a driveway, 
areaway, passageway, or any other place where workmen 
are exposed to falling material from the trestle, such as 
coal and ore. 

Factory Yards. — These should be enclosed with open 
fencing. Closed fencing should not be used on sides where 



STEAM AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 285 

there are entrances or gates, as the vision would be ob- 
structed. Locked gates should be placed over all tracks 
entering the yard, and also at driveway entrances. These 
should also be of open construction, preferably of the slid- 
ing type. Fences and gates should not be built solid, as 
it is then impossible to see approaching cars, engines or 
vehicles. 

A conductor or brakeman should be placed at the end 



11 IBBI^^HBBB^ ^ 


\ 


• i 


1 


1 






W^' '"'^^/^nKf^^^^^^^^^^K^^. 




1 





Fig. 97 
Guard gate for track crossing in factory yard. 
Courtesy Commonwealth Steel Company. 

of every freight train when switching is in progress, to 
make sure that no one will be injured. 

Substantial raihngs should be placed in front of door 
openings directly in front of a track, to prevent employees 
from carelessly rushing or walking upon the track when 
coming out of the building. Railings should also be placed 
at the corners of buildings which are close to the tracks. 

Loading and Unloading MateriaL — Sand, rock, gravel, 
ore, lumber or any other material should never be placed 
within 6 feet of the nearest rail, in order that there may 
be a safe clearance between the cars and the material. 



286 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Where this is impossible, warning signs should be placed 
at each end of the pile to prevent persons passing between 
the pile and the track. 

Hand trucks and gang planks, for transferring material 
on sidings to and from a building platform, should be kept 
in good condition. Special care should be taken in load- 
ing or unloading cars with dangerous explosives, inflam- 




FiG. 98 

Unsafe practice of riding on brake rigging while clinging to a hand hold. 

Courtesy Chicago & Northwestern Railroad Co. 

mable materials, and chemicals. This work should be done 
under the supervision of a competent foreman. In loading, 
material should be carefully stowed. All packages, boxes, 
carboys and cans should be secured against possible move- 
ment, displacement or breakage during transit. 

Agents and receiving clerks should carefully inspect all 
consignments of inflammable liquids, to see that the con- 
tainers are tightly closed, the bungs screwed in tightly, and 
that there is no evidence of leakage. Shippers should be im- 
pressed with the necessity of screwing the bungs in with a 
wrench, so they cannot be loosened with ordinary handling. 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROADS 



287 



Oil Tanks. — The utmost vigilance should be exercised 
in handling and storing fuel oil. Leaks that develop in 
pipe lines or tanks should be promptly repaired. 

In cleaning out an oil tank, it should first be drained 
of all oil. The manhole cover should be removed, and 
sufficient time allowed for the tank to thoroughly drain. 
If the oil is thick, or repairs are being made in cold weather, 




Fig. 99 

Many men are killed every year by attempting to crawl 

underneath cars. 

Courtesy Chicago & Northwestern Railroad Co. 



steam should be admitted to heat the tank and oil to facili- 
tate draining. While the tank is being steamed, the man- 
hole may be covered with canvas or sacking to confine 
the steam. There will thus be no danger of sufficient 
pressure being created to cause any damage. 

After the tank has been thoroughly drained of oil, the 
inside should be wiped with waste soaked in kerosene oiL 
Benzine, gasoline or turpentine should not be used. There 
is less danger of gas formation with kerosene. While 



288 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

cleaning the inside of the tank, the manhole should be 
uncovered, and the outlets at the bottom of the tank 
opened, affording as good ventilation as possible. 

In case the tanks have been used for gasolene, naphtha 




Fig. 100 

Dangerous practice of sitting on hand 
wheel. A severe jolt might cause a 
serious injury or even death. 

Courtesy Pennsylvania Railroad Company. 

or other light oils, the manhole cover should be removed 
and the tank steamed for a sufficient time to remove all 
the gas. 

There should always be a man with a rope outside the 
manhole, watching, so that if a man is overcome with gas, 
he can be quickly removed. 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROADS 



289 



Under no consideration should an open light or fire be 
allowed inside or about oil tanks. When making repairs, 
hot rivets should not be driven until the tank is thoroughly 
cleaned and ventilated. 




Fig. 101 

Climbing between cars is often a short cut to death. 

Courtesy Chicago cfc Xorthwestern Railroad Co. 



RAILROAD AND YARD RULES 

1. Before crossing an}' raih-oad track, ahvays stop, look in both directions, 
and listen. Make sure that you can cross in safety. Then go ahead. 

2. Do not cross any track, either in a yard or crossing, or on a street, 
directly behind or in front of an engine, railroad car or trolley car. Something 
may be approaching on an adjacent track that you cannot see. Wait until you 
have a good view, and then look both ways before crossing. 

3. Refrain from trespassing on tracks. Deliberately walking the tracks is 
to put your life in danger. The majority of persons killed on railroads each year 
are trespassers, who are killed through their own negligence. Never walk the 
tracks to and from your work. When you are with one or more persons, do not 
depend upon them for your own safety, but look out for yourself. 

4. Never attempt to board or alight from moving cars. In alighting, see 
that you are stepping upon a safe footing. 

5. Never take refuge at the sides or ends of, or underneath cars, either from 
rain, snow or sun, or for any other reason. 



290 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

6. Never get off any car backward. When alighting, face ahead, and hold 
on to the hand rail with one hand. 

7. Never climb between, or crawl under cars. 

8. Never stand too close to the track, when cars are approaching or passing. 

9. Familiarize yourself with the places about the plant, where there is no 
clearance for a man on the side of a car. Take care that you are not caught and 
crushed at such places. 

10. None, but those whose duties require it, should be allowed to ride on 
engines or cars. 

11. Never place tools, or material of any kind, where they will be struck 
by cars. Clean up all rubbish near the track, and never leave any material for 
others to stumble over. 

12. All frogs, switches and guard rails should be safely blocked. 

13. All switch bridles should be so close to, or distant from ties, as to pre- 
vent a foot becoming caught between the bridle and tie. 

14. When new switch stands are installed, they should be so constructed 
that the ball will be thrown parallel with the rails. 

15. All dangerous railway crossings should be provided with automatic 
bells, or other suitable warning signals. 

16. There should be a clearance of at least 4 feet from the rail for all build- 
ings, or other structures, on a straight railwaj^ track, and at least 4^ feet on curved 
tracks. 

17. In unloading cars, material should be piled at least 6 feet from the rails. 

18. Switchmen should protect crossings, where there is danger of work- 
men crossing in front of, or between, moving cars. 

19. All switches should be left lined up as found. 

20. Trains should be brought to a full stop, before cutting cars loose from 
an engine. 

21. Flying switches should be positively forbidden, except where specifically 
approved because of necessity. Special permission should be obtained from the 
yardmaster. 

22. Switchmen should be forbidden to stand between rails, and attempt 
to board a locomotive or car, which is approaching. 

23. Switchmen should be positively prohibited from going between cars to 
pull pins, while the cars are in motion. 

24. Never kick a drawbar to make a coupling. Switchmen should be 
forbidden to go between cars, on the inside of a curve, to pull pins or make 
couplings. 

25. Use the pin to guide the link in the drawhead. Do not use your hand, 
and keep your fingers out of danger. Never use your foot to open drawheads. 

26. Head foremen, yardmasters, and switchmen should be prohibited from 
running or moving engines. 

27. In moving cars in any of the buildings, or about the yards, the responsi- 
bility should lie with the switchmen, to know that no one is in a position to be 
injured. At least one switchman should be stationed at the head of each car or 
train movement, and in the event of coupling to, or moving, a car, which is in 
a building, one switchman should be at the far end of the car, before the car is 
moved, or the coupling made. 



STEA.M AXD ELECTRIC RAILROADS 291 

28. In loadinji inat(>rial on cars, can^ should \)v \i\kvn tliat no jjortion will 
project over the sides, or be likely to full off in transit. See that the \veif2;ht of 
the loud is properly distributed over the ear, und thut lurge pieces arc bruc(Ml to 
prevent shifting. 

29. Xo cur should be handl(Ml, which is ()V(>rloa(l(Hl, or which is iniprojx'rly 
loaded, en(lang(M-in<2; life or property. 

30. A\'hen dunii)ing cars, exercise great cure to prevent the dumping lever 
flying and striking you. Do not block up side dump gondola cur doors. 

31. Do not wulk alongside of curs, when material is being thrown from the 
car. 

32. Do not set cars, locomotive cranes, steam shovels or engines, on inclined 
tracks, unless absolutely necessary. If this becomes necessarj^, they should be 
securely blocked or chained, and brukes upplied. 

33. Curs, which cannot be shoved into clear, should be protected by a red 
flag by day, and a red lantern by night. 

34. A signal, imperfectly displayed at any point, or th{^ absence of a signal 
at a place where a signal is usuully shown, should be regarded us u " stop signal." 

3.5. No attempt should be made to descend inclines with more cars than 
the engineer beheves can be safely handled, depending upon the condition of the 
rails, whether wet or dry. 

36. When moving cars on tracks, where the vision is ol)structed, the crew 
should ascertain if the truck is cleur before proceeding. 

37. After unloading cars, see that all loose material is removed from the 
trestle. 

38. Conductors and switchmen should be held personally responsible for 
accidents to men that may be working around tracks or cars. 

39. Switchmen should see that points fit close to the rail, and in the event 
of any defect, the track foreman should be immediately notified, and repairs 
made, before the switch is used. 

40. Conductors and switchmen should report to the superintendent all 
cases of defective couplings, brakes, steps, hand-holds and other parts of 
mechanical appliances. 

4L No material should be piled on the end of tracks inside the bumping 
posts, or at the end of any stub tracks, where there are no bumping posts. 

42. Guy lines should not be fastened to railroad tracks, until the switches 
are spiked on such tracks, and the tracks abandoned. All guy lines, fastened 
near tracks, should be carefully examined to see that there is at least 4| feet 
clearance, and at least 22 feet top clearance, for passing cars. 

43. When coupling or shoving, do not stand on footboard between engine 
and car. 

44. Never go between moving cars under any circumstances. If necessary 
to go l:)etween cars, they should first be stopped. Be sure that your position is 
known, and that you are protected from movement of the cars. 

45. Never go under cars for repairs, without placing warning flags at each 
end of the car. 

46. Never ride on brake rigging, journal-boxes, truss-rods or other unsafe 
footings. 

47. Never sit on l)rakc wheel, side wall, or end of ojien box cars. 



292 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

48. Never ride on the side of a car, hanging to a hand-hold, with your feet 
on the journal-box, truck-frame or foot-hold. 

49. See that gang planks are in good condition, and secured, so they will 
not slip in trucking over them. 

50. Never move cars at night without the proper lights. 

51. Never allow cars to roll to a position, in '' spotting them," without a 
brakeman. 

52. Workmen should wear life belts and ropes, when unloading hopper- 
bottom cars. 

53. When riding on top of freight cars, watch out for obstructions. 

54. Never stand within the swing of tools of other workmen. 

55. Workmen should be forbidden to ride upon any material hoist, der- 
rick, steam shovel, locomotive crane, cars, or other moving bodies, unless their 
duties require it. They should also be forbidden to slide down any ropes. 

56. When necessary to go under a steam engine, it must first be hooked 
up on center, cylinder cocks must be opened, brakes set, blocks placed under 
one or more of the drivers, and provision made to prevent any other car or engine 
moving against it. 

57. Do not leave cars on sidings, in yards, or on the road, so that they will 
just clear. Leave them well in to clear, so that a man on the side of a car or en- 
gine, or an engineman with his head out of the window, will pass safely. 

58. Before shoving cars that should be coupled together, slack must be 
taken. 

59. Test hand brakes before depending upon them. 

60. When using a stake or push pole to shove cars, stand on the side of 
the stake opposite the direction in which the car is to be moved, so that the stake 
moves from you instead of toward you. Do not try to shove too many cars with 
a stake, or use stake where tracks are too far apart. 

6L When necessary to move cars that are unevenly loaded, use care to 
avoid overturning them. See that no one is on or about them. 

62. Do not stand or place any part of body between lading and end of 
cars loaded with lumber or other freight which is likely to shift. 

63. Do not ride on the top or side of an exceptionally high or large car when 
possible to ride on an ordinary size car. Face the direction the car is moving 
unless duties require otherwise. On Electric Division employees must not ride on 
top of any car, caboose or engine tender within three hundred feet of any bridge 
or other overhead structure having a clearance above the rail of less than 21 feet. 

64. Do not lean beyond the line of cab or car without exercising care to 
avoid being struck. 

65. When engines or cars are being pulled or lifted by rope, chain or cable, 
stand far enough away so that flying parts cannot strike you in case of breakage. 

66. Do not sit or stand between the cab of an engine and apron or chute of 
coal dock while coaling an engine. 

67. Tenders of engines must be so loaded that coal cannot roll ofT. 

68. Do not let the squirt hose hang out of engine cab. 

69. Do not start injector when likely to scald someone. 

70. Trucks on station platforms must be properly secured or locked, with 
handles hooked up. 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC^ RAILROADS 293 

71. Xever place a truck ncar(M- than (> fcM-l fi-oin the nearest rail until an 
approaching train has stopped. Trucks should he jnilled — not jnished. 

72. ^^'hen necessary to go hack flagging, renieniixu- that the lives of many 
persons are dependent ui)on you. You are i)aid to " go l)ack." Uv sure you go 
far enough. 

73. Do not use jacks with worn or l)roken teeth, loose fitting wrenches, 
nor chisels, punches or hammers with burred or ''nuishroom" heads, nor any 
tools with loose or cracked handles. When using a chisel, hold it with the hand 
well down from the top, so that if the hammer glances off it will not be so apt to 
inflict a serious injury. 

74. Never fail to read aloud and compare train signals. 

75. In operating hand cars, be sure you afford yourself all the protection 
possible. Go slow around curves on the down grade. Always stop the car and 
listen, or send a " lookout" ahead, before rounding curves. 

76. Never operate hand cars close together. 

77. Trackmen should stop shoveling at once, when signaled to do so by 
the foreman. Do not then try to remove an extra shovelful of dirt. 

78. Persons should be forbidden to ride on platforms of cars. 

79. Prevent persons from crowding on platforms at stations. 

80. Never allow suitcases or bags to be left in the aisle of cars. Do not leave 
suitcases or bags on platforms of stations for someone to stumble over. 

81. Never stand close to the track when a train is approaching or passing, 

ELECTRIC LINES 

Surface Cars. — The following are the details of the 
structure and equipment of the new center-entrance sur- 
face cars used b}^ the Brooklyn Rapid Transit system. 
These cars mark a further advance toward safety and 
comfort than any other type of surface cars yet devised. 
They tend to greatly decrease boarding and alighting 
accidents. The wheel guards practically eliminate the 
possibility of anyone being run over: 

All steel car body. Sides and structure of pressed and sheet steel. Mahogany 
sashes and steel doors. Roof and interior lining, sheet agasote, non-inflammable 
and non-conducting of electricit}'. Floor at entrance only 14 inches above rail. 
Standard H. B. wheel guards, with safety chains and stationarj' truck guards. Air 
brakes with emergency feature and special emergency control, allowing con- 
ductor to cut out motor and apply brakes independently of motorman. 

Side doors operated by electro-pneumatic device and so adjusted with motor- 
man's controller that the doors cannot be opened when the car is in motion, while 
the car, when stopped, cannot be started until the doors are closed. 

Side doors protected on edges with rubber tubing so that, should the door 
be closed on a passenger, no injury would result. 

Heaters controlled automatically by a thermostat. 



294 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Mechanical ventilation. Intake of air provided by screened openings in floor 
through heaters, exhaust through exhaust fan under bonnet. 

Lighting by means of tungsten lamps; extremely ^yide windows and white 
enamel interior decoration give a maximum diffusion of Hght at all times. 

INIotors arranged for two running speeds allowing slow operation through 
congested streets and faster operation in outlying sections. 

Push-button buzzer system for both passengers and conductor to signal motor- 
man to stop the car. Starting signal entirely separate from the buzzer and con- 
sists of small electric lamps in front of motorman which are automatically lighted 
only when all doors are closed. 

The new center-entrance car of the Brooklyn Rapid Transit System can be 
operated in all respects as safely and efficiently in trains as in single units. 

Windows. — Windows of trolley cars should be guarded 
with grille-work or bars on the outside to prevent passen- 
gers leaning their heads, or thrusting their arms, out of the 
window with the consequent danger of being hit by an 
approaching car on the opposite track. Open electric cars 
should be equipped with railings to prevent passengers 
from falling or stepping out on the wrong side of the car. 

Subway Cars. — The latest and safest type of subway 
car is that used by the New York Municipal Railway. 
This car has the following safety features: 

Automatic speed control while the car is going down grades. 

Steel construction throughout. 

Plan of interior decoration developed in connection with scientific study of 
lighting system. 

Sanitary floor corners, which render impossible the accumulation of dirt and 
reduce to a minimum the opportunities for germs to gather and breed. 

SPECIAL SAFETY FEATURES 

**Dead Man's" Emergency Control Handle. — A device incorporated in the 
controller operating handle that will automatically cause the power to be shut 
off and the brakes to be applied in case the motorman's hand is for an}- reason 
removed from handle when in operating position. 

Conductor's Emergency Valve. — A device whereby, in case of emergency, 
the air brakes can instantly be applied to and power cut off from the entire train 
from any car in the train. 

Empty and Load Brake Attachment. — A device that regulates the braking 
power in proportion to the passenger load, so that with increased load an in- 
creased braking pressure will l)c obtained. 

Automatic Tail Light Change. — A device by which tail lights are auto- 
matically changed when reversing direction of train movement, or in case of 
motorman leaving train, when tail lights will show red on both ends of train. 



STEAM AND ELECTRIC RAILROADS 295 

Clasp Brakes. — Two brake shoes are used per wheel, thus producing a more 
uniform and smoother stop. 

Electro-Pneumatic Brakes. — The latest development in Air Brakes, making 
possible a quicker and smoother stop than with the plain Air Brake without 
the electric feature. 

Safety Spring Door Cushion. — Doors are equipped with a safety spring 
cushioning tlevice, so that if door should accidentally strike a person, the shock 
would ])e reduced to a minimum. 

Emergency Lighting System. — An auxiliary sj'stem of lighting is provided 
so that in case the current is, for any reason, cut of!" from train, the emergency 
system will automatically light up and remain lighted until the regular lighting 
is restored. 

Door Interlock Signals. — An arrangement whereby the starting signal 
system is interlocked with the doors, so that signal to start will not reach 
motorman until all doors in train are closed. 

Automatic Coupling. — All couplings between cars are made automatic, in- 
cluding Car, Air and Electrical connections, thus making it unnecessary for 
employees to go between cars when making couplings. 

Safety Gates. — Safety gates are provided at ends of cars that come to- 
gether and close opening between ends of adjoining cars when coupled, to 
prevent possibility of passengers falling between cars from station platform. 

Bridges. — The space between members of bridges on 
electric lines, which are close to the track, should be filled 
in with sheet metal to a height of 8 feet, to prevent pas- 
sengers accidentally being caught and injured by a member 
as the car passes by. The inward side should present a 
smooth surface. Passengers are especially apt to be hit 
and knocked off the car by a bridge member, when they 
indulge in the dangerous practice of riding on the running 
board. 

Subways and tunnels should be constructed with 
niches, spaced every few feet, serving as a safe refuge 
to workmen from passing cars. 

Third Rails. — These should be protected by railings or 
pits. "DANGER, THIRD RAIL " should be plainly marked on 
the rail at frequent intervals. In large cities where the 
traffic is large enough to warrant a large initial expense, 
underground conduit systems should be used in place of 
overhead wires. In this case, the connection is made by 
a ''plow" extending down from the car through a narrow 
space between the two slot rails in the middle of the track 



296 PRACTICAL SAFETY :\IETHODS AXD DEVICES 

to a T or channel iron supported on insulators in the con- 
duit. This prevents persons from coming in contact with 
the conductor. Conspicuous warning signs should be 
placed in subway stations and on elevated system stations, 
to caution the public of the third rail. 

Motormen and Conductors. — Motormen should never 
talk to anyone on the car while operating it. They should 
keep a sharp lookout at all times, and act in accordance 
with all signals given by the conductor to stop and start, 
unless they know that such action might cause an acci- 
dent. They should never attempt to traverse a railroad 
crossing until the conductor has had ample time to look 
in both directions along the railway, nor until he gives the 
signal to proceed. They should run slowly and use great 
caution in passing another car which has stopped to let 
off passengers who might carelessly attempt to cross the 
track by walking around the rear of the car. They should 
also run slowly and carefully at crossroads on main streets 
and in crowded sections of the cit}^ Motormen should 
ring gongs or blow whistles continually when rounding 
curves, at crossings, in crowded sections, and whenever 
there is danger of persons being hit. 

Conductors should never givfe the starting signal until 
passengers are safely within the car, nor until passengers 
have safely alighted from the car. Conductors should get 
out at every railroad crossing, even if the flagman signals 
all is safe, and make sure that no train is approaching in 
either direction. Then, and not until, should he give the 
signal for the motorman to proceed. 

Care should be used by both the motormen and con- 
ductors in opening and closing doors. They should not 
be opened until the car has come to a full stop. Neither 
should the car be started until the doors are closed. When 
necessary, conductors should assist passengers in boarding 
and alighting from cars. 



CHAPTER XX 

MINING AND QUARRYING 

The hazardous features of coal mining are represented 
in the danger from falls of roof and coal, and from mine 
cars and locomotives, fire, coal dust explosions, gas explosions, 
electricity, and explosives. 

The Federal Bureau of IVIines, working in conjunction 
with prominent mining companies, has carried on a great 
deal of research work in connection with accident preven- 
tion in coal mines. The efforts of the Bureau have met 
with considerable success. The Federal Bureau of ]\Iines 
has issued many valuable bulletins and miner's circulars 
which deal with all phases of coal mining hazards. These 
bulletins have accomplished much toward educating mine 
owners and managers to cope with the dangers incident 
to both coal and metal mining. 

During the year 1912 there were 4.29 men killed for 
every 1,000,000 tons of coal mined. Statistics in 1911 
indicate that 5.48 men were killed for every 1,000,000 tons 
of coal mined. The year 1912 thus shows a decrease in 
men killed over 1911 of 21.7 per cent. For every man 
killed there are, of course, a great many more seriously 
injured. The number of fatalities and serious accidents, 
have, however, been constantly decreasing, due to more 
concerted effort on the part of mining companies to pre- 
vent accidents and educate the miners, and also to the 
more efficient and effective inspection service offered by 
state mining departments. 

The risk in coal mining is greatest during the winter 
months. The reason for this is that the air, which enters 
the mine, is cooled below the temperature of the workings. 



298 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

It thus dries the mine. This directly increases the danger 
from explosions and also enhances the possibihty of falls 
of roof and coal. 

Classification of Accidents. — The percentage of men 
killed in and about coal mines of the United States during 
the year 1912 is given in the following table, compiled by 
the Bureau of Mines: 

Killed Underground: Percentage 

Falls of roof (coal, rock, etc.) 41.19 

Falls of coal (other than roof coal) 7.58 

Mine cars and locomotives 15.34 

Gas explosions and burning gas 6.95 

Coal dust explosions 1.27 

Explosions of coal dust and gas together 4.53 

Explosives 5.64 

Suffocation from mine gases 0.42 

Electricity (shock and burns) 3.22 

Animals 0.30 

Mining machines 0.42 

Machines other than locomotives and mining machines 0.17 

Mine fires (burned, suffocated, etc.) 0.47 

Other causes 2.29 

Total 89.79 

Killed in Shaft: 

Falling down shafts or slopes 1.19 

Objects faUing down shafts or slopes 0.22 

Breaking of cables, chains, etc 0.08 

Overwinding 0.08 

Other causes 0.72 

Total 2.29 

Killed on Surface: 

Mine cars and mine locomotives 2.88 

Electricity (shocks and burns) '. . 0.38 

Machinery 1.27 

Boiler explosions 0.04 

Railway cars and locomotives 0.59 

Other causes 2.76 

Total 7.92 

100.00 

The more important causes of metal mine accidents 
are due to falls of rock and ore from roof, wall, and bank; 
to timbering; careless use of explosives; falling down shaft, 
winze or stope; cars and haulage system; electricity; 
fires; and machinery and hand tools. The hazards are 



MINING AND QUARRYING 299 

very similar to those encountered in coal mining, except 
that there is not as much danger from fire and from dust 
and gas explosions. 

The following table, compiled by the Bureau of Mines 
in 1911, shows how accidents in metal mines have been 
classified, and the relative hazard connected with the dif- 
ferent headings. The percentages are based on men killed, 
seriously wounded, and slightly injured: 

Underground Mines 

Killed or Injured Underground by: Percentage 

Falls of rock or ore from roof or wall 26.96 

Timbor or hand tools 8.02 

Explosives 1.08 

Haulage accidents 13.05 

Falling down chute, raise, winze or slope 3.33 

Run of ore from chute or pocket 3.91 

Drilling accidents 5.39 

Electricit}' (shocks or burns) 0.13 

Machinery (other than locomotives and machine drills) 2.57 

Mine fires 0.11 

Suffocation from natural gases 0.08 

Inrush of water 0.06 

Other causes 14.04 

Total ; 78.73 

Killed or injured in shaft by: 

Falling down shaft 0.23 

Objects falling down shaft 0.96 

Breaking of cables 0.02 

Overwinding 0.06 

Other causes 0.84 

Total 2.11 

Killed or injured on surface by: 

Mine cars and mine locomotives 0.60 

Railway cars and locomotives 0.19 

Run or fall of ore in or from ore bins 0.44 

Boiler explosions 0.02 

Electricity (shocks or burns) 0.10 

Machinery 1.29 

Other causes 4.66 

Total 7.30 

Surface Mines 

Killed or injured in surface mining by: 

Falls or slides of rock and ore 1 .90 

Explosives 0.49 

Mine cars or locomotives u.sed in mine 1.59 



300 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Steam shovels 0.80 

Falls of persons 1.33 

Falls of derricks, booms, etc 0.31 

Railway cars or locomotives (not used in mine) 0.09 

Run or fall of ore in or from bins 0.04 

Machinery (other than locomotives and steam shovels) 1.34 

Electricity (shocks and burns) 0.04 

Boiler explosions 0.00 

Other causes 3.93 

Total 11.86 

100.00 

Electrical Accidents. — On account of the small space, 
poor light, and dampness encountered in mines, electricity 
is especially dangerous. Wires are within easy reach, it 
being frequently necessary to stoop to avoid them. Also, 
installations of electrical apparatus and machinery are 
usually of a more or less temporary character; consequently 
the installations and wiring are completed at the least 
possible expense and in the shortest possible time. There- 
fore, little attention is usually paid to the factor of safety, 
insulation being frequently inadequate or entirely lacking. 
Careless installations are, however, unsafe and expensive 
to maintain. Poor ventilation, dust, and falls of roof also 
contribute to the causes which favor electrical accidents in 
mines. 

Light conditions can be made satisfactory at dangerous 
points. Limited space can be counteracted by the use of 
safeguards. Ventilation can be greatly improved. Dust 
and dampness, however, are elements which cannot be 
readily eliminated. 

If a miner touches live trolley wires, uninsulated wires 
on machines, metal parts of switches, or live parts of 
motors, either with his bare hand or a metal tool, he is 
likely to receive a shock which will cause a severe burn 
or even death. Metal parts of machines, which have be- 
come accidentally charged with static electricity, are another 
source of electrical accidents. This is caused by failure of 
the insulation, interference with grounding, and live wires 
coming in contact with metal parts. It is highly important 



MIXING AND QUARRYING 301 

that all wires and connections be completely covered with 
effective insulation. All precautions, which will make 
conditions safer, should be taken. 

Alost electrical accidents in mines are the result of the 
miner coming in contact with trolley wires which are nec- 
essarily bare of insulation. All trolley wires should be 
guarded by an inverted trough constructed of wooden 




Fig. 102 

Guard for overhead trolley wires in mine. 

Courtesy United States Steel Corporation. 

boards, or b}^ some other means. This type of guard affords 
the necessary protection to the miner, preventing any part 
of his bod}^ from coming in contact with the wire. The 
great danger from trolley wires lies in the fact that the 
ground is used as a return circuit conductor for the electric 
current. If the miner's body comes in contact with the 
overhead trolley wire in any way, it serves as a good con- 
ductor for grounding the current. Thus the miner would 
receive a serious and perhaps fatal shock. 



302 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

In order to avoid shocks from the metal frames or 
parts of machines and apparatus, which are not designed 
to carry any current, they should be effectively grounded. 
This will prevent them from becoming charged with a 
greater potential than that of the earth, thus entirely 
eliminating the possibility of shock from accumulated static 
electrical charges on these parts of machines or equipment. 
Shocks of this nature are sometimes received from the 
frames and metal parts of locomotives and mine cars. 
The frames of locomotives are connected to the live parts 
of motors, the current passing through the metal frame to 
the rail and the ground. In case the wheels of the loco- 
motive are separated from contact with the rails, for any 
reason, such as might happen from oversanding the rails, 
the metal parts of the frame will become charged with a 
dangerous potential. Under these circumstances, a work- 
man might receive just as severe a shock from the frame 
as from the trolley wire itself. Again, the drawbars of 
mine cars are connected to the frame of the locomotive, 
the connection being continuous throughout the entire 
trip. Therefore, if the locomotive is separated from con- 
tact with the rails, for any reason, the charge may extend 
through the drawbars of all the mine cars in the trip, 
raising them to the potential of the trolley wire. Thus a 
workman might receive a fatal shock from the drawbars 
of mine cars. 

Electrical apparatus and machinery require constant 
inspection in order to maintain a proper factor of safety 
and to obtain efficient service. Dangerous exposed elec- 
trical wires and apparatus are frequently the cause of 
serious mine fires and explosions. Great care should be 
taken to make all installations of electrical machinery and 
apparatus as safe as possible, providing adequate insula- 
tion and effective safeguards. 

Those who are familiar with electricity should caution 
those who are ignorant regarding it, teaching them to be 
careful, instead of encouraging carelessness. Due respect 



MINING AND QUARRYING 303 

should be shown for all wires and electrical apparatus. 
Workmen should keep away from wires, and avoid touch- 
ing any part of electrical machinery unless their duties 
require it. They should be cautioned to obtain proper 
insulation for their bodies before working about electrical 
apparatus, and to avoid working in a wet place where 
there is danger of electrical shock. Rubber boots, if in 
good condition, offer good protection as an insulating me- 
dium. Electricians should wear rubber gloves when at 
work on dangerous circuits. Miners should be cautioned 
against hitting trolley wires with metal tools or drill steel. 
For this reason these objects should never be carried on 
the shoulder when inside a mine. No one should ever 
wilfully cause a fellow-workman to receive an electric 
shock. The consequences are always speculative, and 
they may be fatal. 

It is necessary to use the utmost care in handling ex- 
plosives near electrical apparatus of any kind. A small 
electric current or spark might readily cause an explosion. 
Explosives should never be carried in mine cars which are 
hauled by electric locomotives. The iron fittings of the 
cars might receive an electrical charge from the draw^bars, 
especially when the motorman is using sand on slippery 
rails. Explosives should, at all times, be kept as far as 
possible from any electrical current. 

Mine Fires. — An enormous waste of life and prop- 
erty has resulted from mine fires in the past, and there 
will be much loss in the future until mine owners and 
managers take more radical preventative measures. Alost 
fires, except those caused by explosions, start in a small 
way. They could be easily extinguished if proper fire- 
fighting apparatus were at hand. Fires are almost as much 
to be feared as explosions, and they often cause more 
damage. Fires are frequently, however, the direct result 
of explosions, especially in coal mines. Many fires are 
caused by carelessness. Others are due to spontaneous 
combustion of the ''gob," i. e., the waste material left in 



304 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

rooms or abandoned workings of the mine. Fires some- 
times start in sulphide ore mines from spontaneous com- 
bustion, caused by the heat generated by oxidation of the 
ore. A serious fire in a coal mine may last for several 
years. It may be practically impossible to extinguish it 
before it has caused an enormous loss. 

Fires in surface buildings may become dangerous by 
spreading to the headframes and tipples, thence into the 
mine itself. Breaker buildings, or other buildings, should 
not be built over or about the headframes; otherwise, there 
would be no chance of escape for the miners if this hap- 
pened to be the only means of exit. The laws require 
separate exits in coal mines, placed so many hundred feet 
apart, according to the different state regulations. Where 
practicable, headframes and tipples should be constructed 
of steel. If wood is used, the headframe should be in the 
skeleton form with no housing. Emergency steel trap doors 
should be placed over the shaft, so they may be shut in 
case of fire, thereby preventing the fire from entering the 
mine. Ventilation should be secured, when these doors 
are shut, by means of an auxiliary conduit entering the 
shaft below the trap doors, with an outlet situated some 
distance from the shaft. Wooden buildings should not be 
constructed within 200 feet of the mouth of a shaft or tun- 
nel. If built within this limit from a tunnel, separate exits 
should be constructed to connect with the tunnel, with 
the mouth of the exit located at least 200 feet from any 
building. If these precautions are not taken, the miners 
might be suffocated by smoke and gases. 

Combustible buildings should be located as far from 
shaft openings as is consistent with safety and operation. 
In any case, the buildings should be protected by automatic 
sprinklers and hose lines. There should be an ample water 
supply, stored in tanks or reservoirs affording sufficient 
pressure, with which to fight both surface and underground 
fires. Buildings within 300 feet of shaft openings should 
be sprinklered. There should be a sufficient number of 



MINING AND QUARRYING 305 

hydrants, with adequate lengths of hose, stationed at the 
most convenient points. Small hose, which is capable of 
being directed by one man, is best for underground pur- 
poses. Large hose lines should be used on the surface. 

The maximum trajectory of a water jet from a hose 
line under 40 pounds pressure, in an entr}- or level 7| feet 
high, to a point where the center of the spray would strike 
the floor, is less than 60 feet. Therefore, as no appreciable 
elevation can be attained for the stream underground, the 
efficiency of a hose line in a mine is far below what it 
would be on the surface. The stream cannot be thrown 
nearly so far. When the fire is in the roof or timbers, the 
effective distance, under the same water pressure, is less 
than 40 feet. Thus it will be readily seen that there are 
many difficulties in the way of effectively fighting a mine fire. 

Shaft bottoms and landings should be constructed of 
steel and concrete to render them fireproof. There should 
be a water main in the shaft of at least 3" in diameter, 
^^^th valves and hose attachments at each landing. Pump- 
rooms, engine-rooms, motor-rooms, and stables should also 
be constructed of reinforced concrete. Non-fireproof stables 
are especialh' dangerous on account of the rapidity with 
which a fire spreads in ha}'^ and loose straw. Hay and 
straw should be wet when taken into the mine. Small 
quantities only should be taken in at a time. It should 
be stored in a separate fireproof compartment behind 
locked doors. Open lights should never be allowed in a 
stable. All underground stables should be equipped with 
automatic sprinklers. 

Fan engine houses and fan cases should be built of fire- 
proof material. If they were built of combustible material, 
and set on fire, the intake would force smoke, instead of 
fresh air, into the mine. If fan engine houses or casings 
are not fireproof, steel trap doors, which can be quickly 
shut, should be provided. 

Fires ma}^ be caused by blasts and cave-ins. In coal 
mines, they are frequently caused by the former. Portable 



306 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

fire extinguishers should be placed at convenient points 
near the breast or face. A complete system of water pipes, 
with taps at every 100 feet and hose lines at every 200 
feet, should be placed throughout the mine. This is im- 
portant for fire protection, and also for the reason that the 
water may be utilized for allaying dust. 

Gob fires, as has been stated, sometimes originate from 
spontaneous combustion. This is due to overheating by 
oxidation. If the gob is tightly packed and sealed off, so 
that no air can drift into it, there will be little chance of 
spontaneous combustion. Hydraulic filling and flushing will 
prevent gob fires. Where methane gas is generated in any 
quantity, it is not advisable to seal off the rooms. In this 
case, the pillar and stall, or some form of the longwall 
system of mining, should then be employed. 

Mine fires are commonly caused by some defect in 
electrical apparatus or equipment. Most fires, which are 
caused by electricity, are due to defective installation and 
insulation, careless upkeep, and accidents to equipment 
from falls of roof and other causes. Short circuits, which 
fail to actuate a circuit breaker or blow out a fuse, may 
produce sufficient heat to ignite coal or timber. Sparks 
or arcs may also set fire to nearby combustible material. 
Even incandescent electric lamps, if the heat be confined, 
are capable of igniting combustible objects. Inflammable 
material should never be stored near fuses, circuit break- 
ers, or other apparatus capable of producing a spark or of 
generating considerable heat. Candles and torches should 
not be left burning near timbers. Rubbish should not be 
allowed to accumulate. 

Explosions of gas and coal dust usually start fires, 
although the gases generated by an explosion may auto- 
matically extinguish the fire, as these gases do not support 
combustion. If the ventilation is good, however, the fire 
may persist and become serious. 

Refuge Chambers. — At each division headquarters in 
a mine, where fire-fighting apparatus is usually kept, it is 



MINING AND QUARRYING 307 

advisable to convert the room into a refuge chamber. This 
chamber should be made as nearly fireproof as possible. 
It should be equipped with three sets of fireproof doors. 
There should be telephone connection to the surface through 
a drill hole, not through the shaft. The room should be 
stocked with canned food, drinking water, oxygen tanks, 
first-aid kits, and other useful material. The room should 
be provided with a separate ventilating system. Miners 
who might become entombed by an explosion, or cut off 
from escape by a fire, could then seek this refuge chamber, 
remaining fairly comfortable until rescued. Direction 
boards, indicating the way out and the way to a refuge 
chamber, should be conspicuously placed about the mine. 
These indicators will prevent anyone becoming lost through 
fear and excitement. 

Fire-fighting Equipment. — The fire-fighting equipment 
should consist of water-pipe lines, hydrants, hose, taps, fire 
pumps, tanks or reservoirs, emergency fire doors and 
stoppings, ventilating fans, portable fire extinguishers and 
buckets, breathing apparatus, portable electric lamps, and 
telephone and alarm apparatus. All portable equipment 
should be maintained in its proper place, ready for 
instant use. Special attention should be given to the 
maintenance of the breathing and rescue apparatus. 

Fire Precautions. — The following fire precautions, pre- 
pared by the Bureau of Mines, should prove useful: 

1. Do not use lumber where brick, concrete, or other non-com})ustible 
material should be used. These will give protection against fire, and the extra 
first cost will be offset by fewer repairs and cheaper insurance. 

2. Lay water lines to all parts of the mine. The water may be used to allay 
dust as well as to fight fires. 

3. Have at hand fire-fighting appliances and breathing apparatus; they 
may save your mine. 

4. Organize your miners to fight fire. 

5. Assume that a fire may break out at any point at any time. A fire may 
start while repairs are being made. 

6. Always consider the possi})ilities of escape for the men. 

7. Carry on competitive fire drills to interest the men, so they will be ready 
in an emergency. 



308 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

8. I'^se closed or safety lamps instead of open lights in a coal mine. Portable 
electric lamps are better still. 

9. Engage competent electrical engineers to install your electrical plant, 

10. Take all possible precautions against short-circuiting. 

11. Do not enclose an active mine fii^e until other means of extinguishing 
the fire have been exhausted. First, have all the men leave the mine, except 
those needed for this work. 

12. Never reverse the ventilation, when fighting a fire, unless you know 
what dangers may result. 

Fire Brigades. — In order to successfully fight a mine 
fire, an efficient fire brigade and patrol should be organ- 
ized at each mine. The organization should be patterned 
after that outlined under the chapter on ^'Fire Brigades." 
Drills should be held every week. Members of the brigade 
should be supplied with cloth fire maps showing the loca- 
tions of all shafts, entries, levels, headings, cross-cuts, 
raises, and winzes. The maps should also show all pipe 
lines, hydrants, taps, pumps, sumps, ventilation system, 
fire-alarm signals, overcasts, and doors. Members should 
also be supplied with division maps showing the detail of 
the mine workings and the fire-fighting apparatus. 

Gas Explosions. — Gas and air mixtures, which contain 
between 5 and 11 per cent of methane gas, are readily ig- 
nited by electric sparks or open lights, and sometimes by 
incandescent electric lamps when they are broken. There- 
fore it becomes necessary, in a gaseous mine, to inclose all 
motors and switches (unless oil switches are used), and to 
abandon electric haulage systems. No machinery should 
be left in such a condition that it might readily cause a 
spark. Falls of roof frequently wreck trolley wires and 
feeder systems, causing sparking and explosions. 

Motors should be so constructed that they will be 
explosion proof. They should be so enclosed that an ex- 
plosion within the casing cannot ignite the gas and air 
mixture outside the casing. The relief of pressure, result- 
ing from an explosion within the casing, is usually accom- 
plished by an opening or valve, so constructed that the 
products of the explosion will be cooled before escaping. 



MIXING AXD QUARRYING 309 

This is effected by passing the gases, resulting from the 
explosion, through a series of metallic baffle plates or wire 
screens. These remove the heat from the escaping gases 
by means of conduction. This is the same principle which 
governs the Davy safety lamp. The protective device 
should be so designed that no flames can be forced through 
it by an explosion within the casing, and so that no dust 
can enter, or if allowed to enter, it should be prevented 
from being discharged while ignited. These devices should 
be very strongly built and protected from injury. They 
should be so designed that they cannot be detached from 
the motor unless the motor is rendered inoperative. They 
should be capable of absorbing a large amount of heat in 
a very short time. The metal should be a good conductor 
of heat. Enough metal should be exposed to the flame of 
an explosion to offer as large a heat absorbing surface as 
possible under the circumstances. 

Casings for motors should have as few openings for 
safety devices as possible. Electrical conductors, which 
enter the casing, should be bushed with hard fiber insula- 
tion. All joints should be tight. The amount of unoc- 
cupied space within the casing should be as small as 
practical design will allow. The starting boxes of motors 
should receive the same protection as motors. 

Explosion-proof casings for switches are also designed on 
the same principle as the safety device and casing for mo- 
tors. Oil switches should be so designed that the oil cannot 
leak out or be spilled in any way. They should never be 
left unfilled through neglect. The oil should cover the con- 
tact for at least one inch above its upper extremity. Oil will 
not evaporate to any extent, provided proper oil is used, nor 
will the oil deteriorate as fast as the contacts. Oil switches 
are usually preferable to encased switches for mine use. 

Safety Lamps. — The functions of the miner's safety 
lamp are to give light and to detect the presence of methane 
gas, at the same time preventing the ignition or explosion 
of gas outside the lamp. Improper use and care of safety 



310 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

lamps have been the cause of many fires and explosions. 
Explosions frequently result from improper assembling of 
the lamp. Parts are often misplaced or unadjusted. Pull 
bars are sometimes found removed, rendering the lamp as 
dangerous as the ordinary open lamp. Cases occasionally 
occur in which the miner removes the gauze from the lamp. 
As the safety principle depends upon keeping the flames of 
the lamp within the gauze, the heat being conducted away 
by the gauze, this is obviously a most dangerous practice. 

Lamp foremen should be appointed to pass upon the 
condition of all safety lamps each day before they are 
issued to the miners. Lamp foremen should be held respon- 
sible for the condition of all lamps. Each workman should 
also be required to personally examine his lamp before 
going underground. No defective lamps should be allowed 
to reach the interior of the mine. The foreman should 
lock the lamps before they are issued. Lamps should 
never be unlocked underground. 

Great care should be taken to keep the lamps clean 
and in good condition. It is upon these factors that their 
safeness depends. The atmosphere in the working place 
should be tested for gas by means of the flame. Where 
gas is suspected, tests should be frequently made. If gas 
is present, the length of the flame will be increased. The 
elongation of the flame is a measure of the proportion of 
gas present. The ^^cap" or non-luminous flame is most 
suitable for testing the proportion of gas up to 4 per cent. 
A lighted safety lamp should never be placed in an 
atmosphere containing over 5i per cent of explosive gas. 

The following rules for lamp foremen or inspectors, 
prepared by the Bureau of Mines, should be followed: 

1. The framework of the lamp should be rigid and well made, so that it 
will not get out of shape when roughly handled. 

..■< 2. If the lamp has a glass chimney, the upright rods should be of such 
number and so spaced that a straight edge or ruler, placed against any two ad- 
jacent rods, will not touch the glass. 

3. If a lamp has no bonnet, the gauze should be protected with rods in the 
same manner as the chimney, as indicated above. 



• IMIXIXG AXD QUARRYIXG 311 

4. The lock should be such as will require, when locked, a special device 
for unlocking. 

5. The glass chimney should have a smooth and even wall throughout, 
should be of the best quality', and should have its ends ground truly parallel and 
at right angles to the axis of the chimney; that is, if rulers are placed on each 
end of the chimney, the rulers should be parallel. The chimney should bear the 
trade-mark of the manufacturer. 

6. When the lamp is assembled, there should be no openings between the 
outside and the interior of the lamp except those in the gauze or other heat- 
absorbing material, such as a perforated cylinder in which the size of the per- 
forations corresponds with that of the openings in the gauze. 

7. The handle of the lamp should be either an open ring or a hook, strongly 
made and not easily bent with the hand. 

8. The construction of the lamp should be such that its parts are made in 
standard, uniform sizes, fitting so intimately that, should any part be omitted 
in assembhng, its absence would be detected by the most casual inspection. 

9. There should be an expansion ring, or equivalent device, used wdth the 
glass chimney, so that the chimney, when heated, can expand without breaking 
any part of the lamp. 

10. In the selection of a safety lamp, the lamp foreman should carefully 
examine each of the disassembled parts to discover defects or improper construc- 
tion. If the lamp does not meet the above requirements, it should be rejected. 

Some of the more common errors in assembling safety 
lamps, as outlined by the Bureau of Mines, are as follows: 

1. Leaving out one or both gaskets, or using broken gaskets. 

2. Placing gaskets in underfed lamps so as to exclude the air from below. 

3. Leaving out one of the gauzes in double-gauze lamps. 

4. Placing on top of the glass an expansion ring designed to be placed under 
the glass. 

5. Placing the expansion ring upside down, thus destroying its usefulness. 

6. Failing to screw the bowl (fount) sufficiently to make a tight fit between 
the glass globe and the gaskets. 

7. Lea\'ing out the igniting device without plugging the stem hole. 

8. Leaving off the deflection rings that prevent air from blowing directly 
into the lamp. 

9. Leaving off the shield or bonnet when the lamp is to be used in a strong 
current of air. 

10. Placing a defective gauze in a lamp. 

The following precautions regarding the use of safety 
lamps, prepared by the Bureau of Mines, should be strictly 
observed : 

1. Be sure the lamp is locked before taking it into the mine. 

2. Examine it carefully yourself to see that it is in good condition. 

3. Do not carry a key or other device for unlocking the lamp. 



312 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

4. Do not carry matches into the mine. 

5. Do not attempt to open a lamp within a mine except at a regular lamp 
station, where the rules permit lamps to be opened and relighted. 

6. Do not set your lamp on the ground; it may be upset and extinguished, 
and the glass globe may be broken. Hang the lamp on a timber. 

7. Never use a lamp that has dirt or oil on the gauze. 

8. In testing the lamp in the lamp-room tester for its safeness in gas, hang 
it by the handle. 

9. In testing for the presence of gas in a mine, hold the lamp firmly by the 
bowl or fount. 

10. In testing for gas, be careful to prevent dripping water from striking 
the glass globe. 

11. Do not allow the flame to smoke; soot may fill the gauze. 

12. Before entering a room or a " tight end," examine the flame of your lamp. 
As you advance, make frequent tests for gas. Make frequent tests during the 
shift, and always before and after a blast. 

13. To avoid being left in the dark, fire bosses should carry two lamps, one 
for traveling and one for testing, unless the testing lamp is equipped with an 
internal igniter. 

14. If possible, avoid testing for gas pockets while shots are being fired; 
otherwise, the flame of your lamp may be driven through the gauze and the 
external gas ignited. 

15. When gas flames in your lamp, withdraw the lamp slowly and carefully. 
If the flame goes out, retire to fresh air before attempting to relight it. 

16. If your lamp flames and the wick flame goes out, be sure to examine the 
gauze, because the gas may be burning within the gauze. To put out the flame, 
shut off the air supply, or take the lamp to fresh air if near at hand. Do not try 
to smother the flame with your clothes. 

17. Lamps that have not been used for some time often have rusty gauzes, 
hardened wicks, and are often gummed with oil. They should not be used in 
this condition. 

18. Having detected gas, do not repeatedly put your lamp into it, but 
arrange for the removal of the gas by ventilation. 

Portable Electric Mine Lamps. — The latest types of 
electric mine lamps are far superior to the common safety 
lamps. The only disadvantage is that they do not detect 
gas. The lamp is worn on the cap, thereby allowing the 
miner the free use of both hands at all times. The lamp 
should be so constructed that the bulb cannot be broken 
before the filament ceases to glow. 

Tests on electric mine lamps, carried on by the Bureau 
of Mines, have conclusively proven that sparks from an 
ordinary miner's electric lamp are not capable of igniting 
gas. This statement is based on the assumption that the 



MINING AND QUARRYING 313 

potential does not exceed 6 volts, nor the current 1 ampere. 
These hmits are rarely, if ever, exceeded in such lamp 
outfits. There will be little chance of a short circuit, pro- 
vided the equipment is properly constructed and maintained 
in good condition. 

Ventilation. — Upon the proper ventilation of a mine 
depend the health and safety of the miners. Good venti- 
lation at the face is absolutely essential. Poor ventilation 
allows gas, which is a constant menace to life and property, 
to collect in the mine workings. Good ventilation depends 
partly upon the co-operation of the miners themselves. 
Such an act as leaving a trap door open may render useless 
the best system of ventilation. The system should afford 
sufficient fresh air for all the men and animals in the 
mine. It should also be capable of quickly diluting and 
removing gas from workings. 

The minimum quantity of fresh air should not be less 
than 200 cu. ft. per minute for each person employed in 
a coal mine, nor less than 500 cu. ft. per minute for each 
animal. Not more than 75 persons should be employed at 
the same time in any one split of air current. Measure- 
ments of the rate of flow of air should be made daily at the 
inlet and outlet airways, and also at or near the face of 
each gangway. The air current should not be split below 
the point where the velocity of the air would become less 
than 100 ft. per minute. This velocit}^ is necessary in order 
to properly remove any gas which might otherwise collect. 
All air gauges and anemometers should be frequently tested 
and inspected. 

Fans should be constantly run day and night. If shut 
down for any reason, or if they are not operating at speed, 
the men should be immediately withdrawn from the mine. 
Fan motors should be on individual circuits, so that their 
operation will not be stopped by a short circuit to other 
machinery. Fans should not be located over a shaft, nor 
in front of a slope or entry to a mine. Fans should never 
be reversed while the men are in the mine, except when 



314 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

they are entombed, and then only in case of necessity. 
No one should reverse a fan at such a time unless he ob- 
tains permission from those in authority, nor unless he 
has a full knowledge concerning the consequences which 
will result. 

The air shaft should be kept clear of ice in cold weather. 
It should be frequently examined, otherwise it may reduce 
or entirely shut off the air current. If the weather be cold, 
the intake air may be preheated by exhaust steam. Each 
miner should be supplied with a cloth map of the ventila- 
ting system. A large map of the system should be posted 
upon a bulletin board at the surface. This will teach the 
miners the course of the ventilating current. Airways 
should always be kept free from falls of roof and other 
obstructions, otherwise the current will be considerably 
reduced. 

Double doors should be used at the mouths of cross 
entries, so that a door may be closed all the time as a trip 
passes through a cross entry. All doors should be so coun- 
terweighted that they will close automatically. All over- 
casts and stoppings should be of non-inflammable material. 
A supply of curtain material, and material for stoppings, 
should be kept on hand in the mine for use in an emer- 
gency. Miners should be instructed to report the torn or 
poor condition of curtains or brattices, broken doors, and 
other devices. Trappers or door boys should never be 
allowed to block doors open. When opened, the doors 
should always be held in that position by hand. They 
should always be closed again as soon as possible. Regu- 
lators should be left in the position in which they are 
found. They should only be changed by the fire boss or 
by the mine foreman. Rooms should never be turned 
ahead of the air, — that is, beyond the last open break- 
through which carries the air current. Old workings should 
be either ventilated or sealed off with solid fireproof dams 
or permanent stoppings of brick or concrete. 

All miners should be removed from a gaseous district, 



MIXING AXD QUARRYING 315 

or from near a large volume of standing gas, before the 
gas is removed. In case of a fire or an explosion, miners 
should invariably follow the intake airway in going out 
of the mine, as the return airway would be choked with 
gas and smoke. Under no circumstances should a miner 
cross a ''dead line." A dead line should be indicated by 
a danger signal, placed at the entrance to a dead or aban- 
doned working by the fire boss or other official. 

Workmen are frequently poisoned by an accumulation 
of gases generated by explosions in blasting. If natural 
ventilation is inadequate, artificial ventilation should be 
employed. Gases form in dangerous quantities when dyna- 
mite is not properly detonated. Miners should not be 
permitted to remain in an atmosphere which will not sup- 
port the flame of a candle. 

Checking Men in and Out of a Mine. — Bulletin boards 
should be maintained at the surface upon which the fire 
boss should make a daily record of the condition of each 
workplace. Each miner should examine this board before 
going into the mine. Miners should not be allowed to 
enter the mine until they have received a metal check 
designating their number. These checks should be kept 
on a check board in charge of an official. If conditions at 
the place where the miner is to work are unsafe, the fire 
boss should not place the miner's check upon the board, 
but he should leave a special check or a note stating the 
unsafe condition. Aliners not finding their checks in place 
upon the board should not be allowed to enter the mine 
until they have received special instructions from the fire 
boss or mine foreman. 

Shafts. — Compartments in which men are hoisted 
should be at least of by oj feet in the clear. The top of 
each shaft should be guarded with a substantial railing at 
least 4 feet high, with a toeboard 6" high, and two inter- 
mediate horizontal members between the two. The en- 
trance should be guarded with a gate. The shaft should 
be well lighted at all times at the top, bottom, and at each 



316 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

landing. Gates should be installed at all shaft landings, 
including the bottom entrance. They should be so arranged 
that they cannot be opened until the cage is at a given 
landing. All gates should be at least 5 feet in height. 
Pools of water and mud should not be allowed to remain 
on the floor of headframes or landings within 10 feet of the 
shaft. 

Each shaft should be equipped with an efficient electri- 
cal signaling system. Copies of the signal code should be 
placed at each landing, and also in the hoist house. The 
following uniform general code is recommended: 

1 . Start or stop one bell. 

2. Lower two bells. 

3. Prepare to hoist men three bells. 

4. Hoist men four bells. 

Shaft Sinking. — Shaft sinking is always a dangerous 
process. Drillers and muckers are constantly subjected to 
the danger of falls of rock from the walls and from buck- 
ets. Other objects may fall into the shaftway. Miners 
themselves are occasionally killed by falling down the 
shaft. Accidents in hoisting and lowering men, due to the 
breaking of a cable or to overwinding, occur from time to 
time. Accidents from the careless and improper use of 
explosives are common. 

It is important to keep the walls of the shaft scaled of 
loose rock as the process of sinking progresses. As it is 
impracticable to timber or concrete a shaft within a con- 
siderable distance from the bottom, as the shaft is being 
sunk, on account of the damage which would otherwise 
be done to the structure when blasting, there is always 
danger from falls of loose rock and from flying rock. For 
the protection of miners, in this case, a suspended steel 
platform or bulkhead should be used. This bulkhead 
should be kept within about 15 feet from the bottom of 
the shaft. Holes must be provided for a manway, and for 
hoisting and lowering the buckets and pump. Chain 
ladders with iron rungs should extend from the last fixed 



INIIXIXG AXD QUARRYING 317 

section of the main ladder to the bottom of the shaft, 
serving as a means of escape for the miners. A chain ladder 
will not ordinarily be seriously damaged by blasting. 

Tunneling. — The most serious dangers encountered in 
tunneling are from falls of rock or ore, explosives, trans- 
portation of men and ore, electricit}^, fire, flows of water, 
and from gas. The foremen should see that the work is 
carried on in a safe way. They should warn the men of 
any danger that is likely to arise during the shift. 

The worst danger is from falls of rock and ore. The 
roof of the tunnel, drift, or cross-cut, should be properly 
supported, where necessary, as the work progresses. A 
sufficient supply of timber should be constantly kept on 
hand to permit the timbering to be completed as the tunnel 
advances. Where the roof is at all dangerous, the timber- 
ing should be completed as soon as possible, even if it 
causes some delay. An improperly supported roof is likely 
to claim the lives of miners at any moment, and without 
w^arning. The roof should be carefully examined and con- 
stantly watched. Any dangerous loose rock wdll thus be 
discovered. Loose rock should be immediately barred 
down or properh^ supported. Where the roof consists of 
loose ground, substantial lagging should be provided to 
prevent loose pieces from faUing on the men. 

]\Iiners should be forbidden to ride on loaded trips. 
They should be cautioned against jumping on or off mov- 
ing cars. The}^ should be warned to keep their hands and 
feet entirely within the car w^hen in motion, and also to 
watch for obstructions. Care should be taken, in placing 
tools in the cars, to see that no metal parts come in con- 
tact with trolley wires. Drivers should be forbidden to 
ride on chains. 

Overcharging holes w^ith explosives often causes shatter- 
ing of the roof. This loosens rock which will later be likely 
to fall on the men, if not barred down or supported. It is 
important to test the roof after each blast before the miners 
are allowed to return to work. The correct way to test 



318 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

the roof is by striking it with a pick or a heavy stick, while 
the hand is placed on the part of the roof being tested. 
If any vibration is felt, the roof is unsafe. That part 
which vibrates should be immediately barred down or sup- 
ported. Where the roof is out of reach, the vibration, 
if there is any, may be felt by pressing a stick against the 
doubtful part as it is being struck. Workmen should be 
taught to examine the roof in passing in or out of the 
workings, reporting any unsafe conditions. 

Stoping. — Much that has been described under tunnel- 
ing is also applicable to stoping. Like tunneling, the 
most serious danger is from falls of roof. No bellies in the 
roof should be allowed to remain unsupported. Timbers 
which are taking too much weight should be reinforced. 
Workmen should not be allowed in old stopes where the 
timbers show serious signs of failing. Raises and winzes 
should be guarded with railings and covers. There are 
several different methods of stoping, some safer than 
others, but the safest method is not always the most 
economical. Swelling ground should be carefully watched. 
The responsibility should fall upon the foremen to maintain 
safe conditions. 

Timbering. — Many accidents in timbering shafts, stopes, 
and tunnels are unavoidable, owing to the inherent hazards 
of this work. Shaft timbering is especially dangerous. 
Bruised hands and limbs from handling heavy timbers are 
common. Timbermen are frequently injured by falls of 
roof and walls. They are often seriously hurt by falling 
themselves. Practically the only safeguard is personal 
caution. 

Ladders. — Every mine and isolated underground work^ 
ing should have at least one shaft equipped with a sub- 
stantial ladder of sufficient strength to hold a weight of 
400 pounds for each 8 feet of its length. Each section 
of the ladder should be securely fastened. No ladder 
should be placed vertically or inclined backward. Ladders 
should be inclined at an angle of 15 degrees from the 



MIXING AND QUARRYING 319 

vertical. The sections should be connected with steel 
straps or bolted rods. A landing should be placed every 
20 feet vertically. These landings will prevent a long fall, 
if a person should slip. They also afford a chance for the 
miners to rest when climbing, as well as prevent material 
or rock from falling. Ladders should be regularly inspected 
for defects. 

Transportation. — Cars which are hauled up inclines 
should be equipped with a safety sprag or drag, which will 
prevent the trip from rolling down the incline in case the 
cable should break. Cars should be provided with auto- 
matic coupling devices. The wheels of cars should be 
protected with a housing or plow guard to prevent them 
from running over a workman's body if he should slip on 
the track. The underground transportation system in a 
large mine should be protected with automatic block sig- 
nals, similar to the system used by the railroads. Larries 
should be provided with a covered platform, to protect 
the miner from falls of coal. Trip cars for workmen should 
be connected with safety chains, which will hold the cars 
together in case the couplings should break. 

Hoisting Equipment. — All mine hoists should be 
equipped with an efficient brake, and also an additional 
safety device for stopping, such as a friction clutch or an 
auxiliary brake. The hand or foot levers for operating 
the brakes should be placed within immediate reach of the 
operator, that he may quickly stop the hoist in an emer- 
gency. Each hoist should be provided with a device to 
prevent overwinding. All parts of the hoisting equipment, 
including the cables, should be inspected daily. All hoist- 
ing cables in vertical or inclined shafts should have a factor 
of safety of at least 10. Spliced cables should never be 
used for hoisting. Cables should be securely fastened to 
the drum of the hoist, with at least two full turns about 
the drum when the cage or skip is at its lowest point of 
travel. Where cables are attached by means of a thimble, 
the end should lap back at least 18", being fastened by 



320 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND Di:\'ICES 

at least 3 clips. All cable hooks should be fastened 
with a spring clasp or snap. Hooks and bails on buckets 
should be of sufficient strength, kept in good condition, 
and never allowed to wear too thin. 

Cages. — All cages used for hoisting men should be 
completely encased on the unused sides, with a collapsible 
gate on the entrance side. (Fig. 103.) Cages should be 
provided with substantial steel covers. These may be 
arranged to slide upward when carr^'ing long tools, pipe, 
and timber. Each cage should be equipped with an effi- 
cient safety device which will prevent the cage from fall- 
ing in case the cable should break. The safety device 
should be inspected and tested at least once a week. 

Change Houses. — Change houses are necessary for the 
health of the miners. They should be kept in a clean, 
sanitary condition. They should be properly heated and 
ventilated, and well lighted. Shower baths, lavatories, 
wash basins, and drinking fountains should be installed. 
Lockers in the dry room should be provided for each 
workman. The dry room should be so heated that the 
miners' wet clothes will be thoroughly dried before the 
next shift. 

First Aid and Rescue Organization. — One of the most 
important features of mine safety work is a First Aid and 
Rescue Organization. The hazards of the mining industry 
are so great that it is essential for every mining company 
to interest itself in this w^ork. It is seldom that a doctor 
can arrive on the scene of an accident within half an hour, 
and it is frequently two hours or more before he appears. 
Thus a well trained first aid crew can do much toward 
alleviating the suffering of victims until the doctor arrives. 

The men should be thoioughly trained and educated 
in rescue work. Helmet teams should be organized. Prac- 
tice drills should be held periodically. The Bureau of 
Klines maintains a number of cars, fully equipped with 
material and safety devices, in charge of trained crews of 
mining engineers. These cars are assigned to certain dis- 



MIXING AXD QUARRYIXG 



321 



tricts of the United States, over which they are constantly 
travehng from one place to another, educating the miners 
at each mine in first aid and rescue work. The work- 




FiG. 103 
Improved steel cage for hoisting men in shaft. Enclosed sides, col- 
lapsible gates, steel cover, and effective safety device. 

Courtesy Traylor Engineering & Mfg. Co. 

men are educated by means of illustrated lectures and 
talks, and by actual demonstrations. IMiners manifest 
considerable interest in this work, realizing that it is done 
for their benefit; consequently, much good is accomphshed. 



322 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Quarrying. — The most important causes of quarry 
accidents are due to the careless handling of explosives, falls 
or slides of rock, falls or slides of overburden, falls into the 
quarry, falling booms of derricks, falls from derricks, elec- 
tricity, haulage accidents, and accidents from hand tools. 

All quarries should be surrounded with a substantial 
railing at least 3J feet high, located at least 6 feet from 
the edge of the quarry. Workmen should never be allowed 
within this railing, except at entrances to the quarry. 
Footpaths should be kept free from all loose material, 
such as scrap iron, ropes, cables, and timber. Derrick 
platforms should be completely guarded with a double 
railed iron pipe fence. This affords a safe place for the 
derrickman to stand while directing operations. 

Ladders, leading to the bottom of quarries, should be 
employed only between the lowest bench and the bottom. 
Suitable steps should connect all other benches. Both 
benches and steps should be protected with a double railed 
iron fence. This affords a safe means of travel to and 
from the bottom of the quarry. Where ladders are used, 
they should be substantially built, securely fastened, main- 
tained in excellent condition, and frequently inspected. 

The edge of quarries should be trimmed of all loose 
material and overburden. All loose stones, which are likely 
to fall into the quarry, should be removed. The quarry 
should be so excavated that there will be no serious over- 
hang on any wall. Loose blocks should be blasted down 
before excavation proceeds. 

MINING RULES 

Shafts, skips, cages, and cables: 

1. All shafts should be inspected at least once a week. All ore and dirt 
should be removed from sets and dividers. Lagging, timbers and guides should 
be examined for defects. 

2. Automatic gates should be placed at the collars of all shafts and at all 
underground shaft openings. 

3. Landings in permanent ladderways in shafts should not be placed over 
20 feet apart. The opening at each level should be protected by a trap door, 
to prevent material falling into the ladderway. 



MINING AND QUARRYING 323 

4. Dirt and ore should not be allowed to accumulate at collars or 
landings. 

5. Ladder rungs should be of iron. Ladders should be maintained in good 
condition and frequently examined. ^Hiey should extend at least 3 feet above all 
landings. Ladderways should b(^ tightly boarded off from the skipwa}'. 

6. Riding on skips should be jjrohibited, except for the puri)ose of inspecting 
the shaft, in which case the engineer should be notified. 

7. jMan cages should be equipped with an approved form of safety device 
to prevent the cage from falUng in case the cable should break. These devices 
should be inspected daily, and tested at least once a week, records being kept of 
inspections and tests. 

8. Man cages should be enclosed and roofed. No tools or timber should be 
carried on a cage when hoisting or lowering men. 

9. When men are being raised or lowered, two operators should be at the 
hoisting engine. 

10. No one should be allowed to attempt to enter or leave a cage until it 
has come to a stop. 

11. Never ring the signal for hoisting or lowering. Use call bell or telephone 
to call the cage. 

12. No one should be allowed to ride on top of the man cage. 

13. Cagers should never leave a station until the gate (unless automatic) 
has been properly closed. 

14. Cagers should not allow the men to overcrowd the cages. 

15. All hoisting engines, cages, skips, sheaves, and cables should be inspected 
daily by a competent engineer. 

16. All pipes in the shaftway should be securely fastened. Steam i)ipes 
should be covered with insulating material. 

17. Hoisting should be stopped when men are w^orking in a hoisting com- 
partment of a shaftway. All men working below should be notified. 

18. When shafts are being sunk, doors should be placed at the dumi)ing 
platform to close the shaft opening as the bucket is being dumped, to prevent 
ore and rock from falling down the shaft. 

19. A substantial bulkhead should be provided for the protection of the 
men working at the bottom of the shaft. 

20. Electrical equipment for signals should be inspected at least once each 
week. 

21. Signals should be given only by cagers and skip tenders, foremen, mine 
captains, and landers on surface. 

22. Crossheads should be provided for buckets in vertical shafts. Shafts, 
in which buckets without crossheads are used, should be smoothly cased to 
prevent bucket catching timbers. 

23. Where two ladders are joined end to end, they should be in alignment. 
The rungs at the joint should be properly spaced. 

24. Ladder stringers should be spaced at least 12 " apart in the clear. The 
rungs should be placed at least 4" from the wall and timbers to afford sufficient 
toe room. 

2.5. Broken and defective ladders should be immediately reported. 
26. No unlicensed engineer should be permitted to operate an engine. 



324 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

27. Men should be forbidden to throw tools, steel and other material down 
a manway. 

28. Drill steel, timber and other material should not be placed within 
6 feet of the collar of any shaft opening, raise or winze. 

Timbering : 

1. Headings should not be carried too far ahead of timber. Miners should 
thoroughly test and trim the back of headings at the beginning of every shift 
and after every blast. If the back is loose, it should be trimmed and secured 
with props until it can be permanently timbered. 

2. If timber is noticed to be under unusual strain, it should be promptly 
reinforced. The foreman should be immediately notified. 

3. When conditions, which indicate danger, are noticed, the foremen and 
all fellow employees should be notified. They should always be warned in case 
of crushing timber, caving ground, unusual volume of water or smoke. 

4. When work is completed, all protruding nails should be removed from 
timbers. All loose timber and other material should be removed. 

5. Timber and other material should not be hoisted or lowered through a 
shaft compartment or raise that contains a ladder. 

6. Timber should follow as close as practicable to the breast of drifts and 
openings. In soft ground, sets should be placed in position as soon as there is 
sufficient room; the roof should be secured by poles resting on a cap and set into 
holes at the top of the breast, thus forming a lagging. All loose dirt on back and 
sides should be carefully trimmed. 

7. When timbering a stope or raise, special care should be given to the plat- 
forms and staging. When raising, stage poles should be placed about 2^ feet 
apart. 

8. Drill holes should be so placed and loaded that shots will not dislodge 
timbers in place. ' 
Tramming : 

1. When power is used for tramming, no one other than the motorman and 
brakeman should be allowed to ride on underground tramcars. 

2. Explosives should not be transported in trips hauled by an electric 
trolley. 

3. Underground locomotives should be equipped with red lights and auto- 
matic gongs which will ring when the train is in motion. 

4. Underground trolley wires should be guarded by inverted troughs made 
of boards. Trolley wires should also be guarded at chutes, drifts, and shaft 
openings. 

5. Where more than one motor trams to the same shaft, an automatic block 
system of signaling should be installed. 

6. Trammers should not leave cars at or near switches or crossings in such 
a position that they will not clear motors or cars which may pass by on another 
track. 

7. Loaders should not leave chutes until they are properly closed. 

8. Chutes to skip pockets at stations should be guarded by a grating or a 
substantial railing. 

9. Every trammer should keep a light in front of or above his car at all 
times when the car is in motion. 



MINING AND QUARRYING 325 

10. Cars should never ho allowed to move or roll to ji position without a 
trammer. The trammer should have his car under his control at all times. A\lu>n 
at rest, the po.sition of the car should be indicated by a lijilil. 
Hoisting Engineers: 

1. Xo eni])l()yee, other tlian the lioisting enfiiiieers, .should he allowed in 
the engine room unh^ss his duties require him to go there. 

2. Hoistmen should not leave the engine room without securing a com- 
petent substitute who is famiUar with the bell t^ignals. 

3. Machinery and hoisting cables should be examined at the beginning of 
each shift. 

4. When repairing engines, see that the valve on the steam line is closed and 
padlocked. Never start the engine until you know that the shaft way is clear 
and that there are no men in the hoisting compartment. 

5. If you do not clearly understand a signal, never fail to wait until it is 
repeated before hoisting or lowering. 

6. Do not hoist or lower men at excessive speed. Have your engine under 
absolute control at all times. 

7. Never hoist or lower men unless there is an assistant with you. 
Miscellaneous : 

1. TraveUng about unlighted stopes or drifts without a light should be 
prohibited. Always carry matches and a candle in addition to a lamp.* If you 
are unable to light your lamp or candle, call for help. Remain where you are 
until assistance arrives. 

2. Never stand on loose ore over a raise or chute. It may slide and draw 
you in. 

3. Shift bosses and sub-bosses should make certain that their men are 
familiar with all exits from their working places to the surface. 

4. When you go off .shift, never leave a candle or lamp burning in the mine. 

5. See that all openings, holes, and chutes are covered with ])lanks or a 
grating, or guarded with a railing. 

(). B(^fore going off shift, all tools should be left in their proper places. 

7. Always seek a place of refuge when you see a car approaching. 

8. Never leave food scraps about the mine. Place them in the receptacles 
provided for refuse. 

9. Before blasting, drillers should remove their machines, tools, and hose 
a sufficient distance to escape injury. 

10. Pickers who are working in milling pits should wear life b(^lts and ropes 
tied to a bar in the bank above. Never work over pits unless this jjrecaution is 
taken. Belts and ropes should alwa^^s be carefully inspected before use. 

11. Never touch an electric wire of any kind. Never allow tools which you 
may be handhng or carrying to come in contact with a trolley wire. 

12. Never touch or go near explosives unlc-s you are authorized to do so. 

13. Keep out of old and abandoned workings. 



* Matches should not be taken into a coal mine. This rule appUes to 
metal mines. 



CHAPTER XXI 

EXPLOSIVES 

Although enormous quantities of explosives are being 
daily used in mining and engineering operations, a con- 
siderable proportion of persons engaged in handling them 
have a very imperfect knowledge of their character, quali- 
ties, and safe methods of using them. This is not only a 
menace to human life and property, but leads to an im- 
portant waste of material. Workmen become so accustomed 
to handling high explosives that they have little or no 
apprehension of the danger involved from incautious and 
improper use of these powerful agents of destruction. 
As a re^lt of lack of knowledge and of carelessness, many 
exceedingly dangerous practices, which entail fatal conse- 
quences, are indulged in. 

The use and handling of explosives should be under 
the direct supervision of men of wide experience in this 
line of work. Explosives should never be placed in the 
hands of an uneducated or inexperienced workman until 
he has served a sufficient apprenticeship, which will have 
enabled him to become thoroughly acquainted with the 
safe methods to be pursued. Stringent rules should be 
strictly enforced by foremen and others in authority. 

Several hundred different explosive compounds are 
recognized in Europe, while in this country their 'intro- 
duction has been slow and commercially unsuccessful. 
Some of them are superior in point of safety to our com- 
mon dynamites. Practically the only explosives in general 
use in this country are black powder (gunpowder and blast- 
ing powder) and several ordinary varieties of dynamite. 



EXPLOSIVES 327 

Properties of Gunpowder. — Gunpowder is a mechani- 
cal mixture of 75 parts of potassium nitrate (niter or salt- 
peter), 15 parts of charcoal, and 10 parts of sulphur. 

The proper color of good gunpowder or blasting powder 
is a uniform dark gray or slaty hue. A dead black or 
decidedly bluish color indicates either the presence of too 
much charcoal or an excess of moisture. Gunpowder 
should show no difference of color when crushed, and no 
sharp angular fragments should be visible before crushing. 
On pressing the powder between the fingers it should not 
crackle, nor should it crush easily under such pressure. 
It should not crumble under this test, but should fall to 
pieces in angular fragments. The size of the grains should 
be quite uniform, and there should be no dust when new. 
It should leave no color, which would indicate the existence 
of meal powder or too much moisture, when poured over 
the hand or paper. Single bright spots, or bluish-white 
spots, show that the powder has been damp, causing efflo- 
rescence of saltpeter, which destroys the uniformity of compo- 
sition of the explosive and renders its action unreliable. As 
a rule, powder has not suffered from dampness if no efflores- 
cence of saltpeter has taken place. Damp powder can be re- 
stored by drying it in the sun or in a well ventilated room. 

A blow of copper on wood rarely explodes gunpowder, 
a blow of wood on wood never, but a blow of wood or 
copper on stone has frequently exploded it. Burn- 
ing bodies only ignite gunpowder when they are very 
hot. This is well shown in attempting to ignite blasting 
powder with a match. As long as there is an ordinary 
flame, the powder will not ignite, but as soon as a narrow 
pointed flame issues it ignites instantly. A gas flame will 
only ignite powder after it has acted upon it for a few 
seconds. Sparks from stone or steel easily ignite powder. 
An electric spark ignites powder only when the discharge 
is delayed by the interposition of a bad conductor. An 
electric current will explode gunpowder only through the 
heating of a resistance wire in the circuit. Good powder, 



328 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ignited on a piece of white paper, burns rapidly away, 
leaving no residue. If black spots are found, they indicate 
an excess of charcoal, or an imperfect mixture of the in- 
gredients of the powder. Yellow spots, remaining on the 
paper, indicate an excess of sulphur; and if any holes have 
been burned in the paper, it indicates an excess of moisture, 
or some other imperfection in the powder. Gunpowder 
cannot be detonated. 

Dynamite. — Dynamite is the most widely used explo- 
sive in the world. It is made by using an absorbent, com- 
monly called a ^^dope,'' which takes up the nitroglycerine, 
holding it after the manner of a sponge. A suitable dope 
should possess a cellular structure, so that the nitrogly- 
cerine may be subdivided into minute globules, each globule 
being held separately in its own cell, completely isolated 
from every other one. In this condition, its sensitiveness 
is greatly reduced, depending upon the amount of nitro- 
glycerine absorbed. 

There are certain requirements which dynamites should 
fulfil, and it is the duty of all persons, using or handling 
them, to see that they do not fall short of the proper 
standard. Good dynamite should not feel greasy. There 
should be no trace of nitroglycerine inside the wrapper of 
the cartridge. In order to test this point, lay one of the 
doubtful cartridges on a sheet of clean brown paper in a 
room heated to 60 or 80 degrees F. for a period of 12 
hours. If the cartridge has begun to leak nitroglycerine, 
this will be shown by an oily discoloration of the paper. 
Properly made dynamite should be proof against leakiness 
under normal conditions of temperature and moisture. To 
test its quality in this respect, two separate determinations 
should be made: First, freeze and thaw samples of dyna- 
mite three successive times, testing for leakiness as explained 
above. Second, expose samples to a temperature of from 
85 to 90 degrees F. for six consecutive days and nights, 
again testing for leakiness as above. In neither case should 
any trace of free nitroglycerine be seen on the brown paper. 



EXPLOSIVES 329 

Like nitroglycerine, dynamite is most sensitive to shock 
or friction at just above its freezing point. According to 
the character of the dope used, it freezes at from 42 to 46 
degrees F. It is nearly, if not quite, insensitive to shock 
when frozen, but not entirely so to friction. Cartridges 
which are broken when frozen, are subject to explosion 
from molecular disturbance of the nitroglycerine crystals. 
Ramming sticks of frozen dynamite into a hole is attended 
with the same danger. Explosions of frozen dynamite may 
be due to the friction of long crystals of nitroglycerine 
wdth films of unfrozen nitroglycerine. Frozen dynamite is 
not incapable of being detonated, especially if very power- 
ful detonators are used. Any efflorescence, whitish film, or 
incrustation on dynamite cartridges indicates either that 
the dynamite itself contained an excess of moisture in the 
dope, or (what is more hkely to be the cause) that it has 
been subjected to an excess of dampness in transportation 
or storage. In either case the incrustation is due to dis- 
solving out the nitrate of sodium or potassium. This 
has consequently destroyed its homogeneity. Such d3ma- 
mite is almost always leaky, or will soon become so. 
It is unrehable, and may fail to explode in blasting. 
It will produce noxious fumes if it does explode. Its 
power as an explosive has also been reduced, so that it 
possesses the disadvantages of being dangerous to handle, 
unreliable as a blasting agent and, at best, uneconomical. 
It should not be used, but should be destroyed. Exposure 
to the rays of the sun, especially if transmitted through 
wdndow^ glass, is likely to produce decomposition and cause 
an explosion, owing to the fact that imperfections in the 
glass concentrate the rays at certain points. A strong 
electric discharge, or a flash of lightning, will usually explode 
dynamite. Dynamite, placed in water, gradually parts 
with its nitroglycerine, its place in the cartridge being 
taken by water. Attention is especially draw^n to this fact 
because of the popular impression that dynamite is unaf- 
fected by water, an error that has probably arisen from 



330 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 

the fact that it can be used in wet holes or under water. 
In wet situations, it should be fired soon after preparing 
the charge. Under no circumstances should it be allowed 
to remain unexploded for several hours, otherwise the nitro- 
glycerine will leak out and find its way into crevices where 
it may cause accidents later on. The characteristics given 
above apply to all those explosives popularly known as 
dynamite, giant powder, dualin, atlas powder, hercules 
powder, rendrock, etc. 

Gelatin dynamite is an explosive in which the blasting 
gelatin has been incorporated with a dope to modify its 
action. For these explosives a stabilit}^ test is important. 
For this purpose, repeated freezing and thawing, followed 
by the test for leakiness, as with ordinary d^mamites, and 
prolonged exposure to a temperature of 90° F., again test- 
ing for leakiness, are requisite. An}^ tendency to leak, 
under such circumstances, is due to the presence of mois- 
ture in the ingredients, and the fault lies entirely with the 
manufacturer, and not to exposure under unsuitable condi- 
tions in transportation or storage. Gelatin dynamite 
possesses many advantages over the common dynamites, 
and is rapidly supplanting them in most European coun- 
tries. It is not, however, as safe a material, being subject 
to spontaneous explosion, and being untrustworthy in cold 
weather. Until these disadvantages are overcome, it is 
not a desirable explosive except in the hands of a man of 
wide experience and caution. 

Harmful Fumes. — The resulting deleterious fumes of the 
explosion of common powders are carbonic acid (CO2), 
carbon monoxide (CO), and nitrogen. The latter is evolved 
in comparatively small quantities, but its effect is the 
same as that of carbonic acid — simple asphyxiation. A 
patient overcome with carbonic acid and nitrogen, if res- 
cued in time, will be speedily resuscitated by an ample 
supply of pure air. The case is otherwise with carbon 
monoxide. This is a poison. If carbon monoxide, or the 
air containing it, is inspired, it gradually replaces the 



EXPLOSIVES 331 

oxygen, volume for volume, in the red corpuscles of the 
blood, and death soon occurs. A very small quantity in 
the air (^^-(r to lo^oo) suffices, in a relatively short time, 
to form a quantity of carbonic-oxide-hannoglobin. In 
very partial poisoning, the blood gradually gets rid of it 
through the respiratory organs. Being a stable compound, 
it circulates in the blood vessels, but neither gives up oxy- 
gen to the tissues, nor takes up oxygen from the lungs, 
hence, its very poisonous properties. The real cause of 
death is that the internal respiration is arrested. Its 
effects are, first, stimulation, and afterwards, paralysis of 
the nervous system, as shown by the symptons induced, 
e.g., violent headache, great restlessness, excitement, in- 
creased activity of the heart and respiration, salivation, 
tremors and spasms; later, unconsciousness, w^eakness and 
paralysis, labored respiration, diminished heartbeat; and 
lastly, complete loss of sensibility, cessation of respiration 
and heartbeat, and death. At first the temperature rises 
several tenths of a degree, but it soon falls one degree or 
more. The pulse is also increased at first, but afterwards 
becomes very feeble though frequent. Where the quantity 
of carbon monoxide is large (as in the case after a blast 
in mines where the combustion of the explosive has, 
from any cause, been imperfect), there is temporary, 
but pronounced, paralysis of the limbs, followed by violent 
spasms. 

The volitalization of nitroglycerine in small quantities 
after dynamite explosions causes fumes which produce 
practically the same effect, when inhaled, as carbon mon- 
oxide. The absorption of small amounts of nitroglycerine 
through the skin, or consumed in eating food with the 
hands, in case a person has neglected to wash the hands 
after handling dynamite, causes similar s^-mptoms. Severe 
and prolonged headaches are characteristic of nitrogly- 
cerine poisoning. In unusual cases, headache has been 
known to persist for three weeks. 

The treatment in case of nitroglycerine poisoning con- 



332 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

sists of the usual procedure in cases of asphyxia. In addi- 
tion to this, it should consist of the use of cold applications 
to the head, and of atropine, ergotine or other vaso-motor 
stimulants, administered sub-cutaneously ; also the inhala- 
tion of ammonia and carbonate, and aromatic spirits of 
ammonia taken internally. 

Fuses. — Safety fuses are essentially slow-burning fuses 
in which the fire of the powder travels along slowly within 
the fuse, an average rate being about one foot per half 
minute. When blasting holes, the fuse should be as long 
as the hole is deep, or longer if necessary, in order to in- 
sure perfect safety. Fuses should never be less than 2 
feet in length for pops, block holes and shaking holes. 

Quick-burning fuses are used in place of electricity to 
accomplish simultaneous firing of a number of holes. These 
fuses burn at the rate of about 500 feet per second. In 
order to fire several holes at the same instant, the fuses 
should all be of equal length and attached to a sheet iron 
connector, in one end of which is a disc of powder and a 
perforated wooden plug for the insertion of an ordinary 
safety fuse. 

Fuses should be kept perfectly dry. They should be 
preferably stored in canisters. Care should be taken to 
keep them out of contact with oils. They should never 
be stored in open coils with caps, powder, or dynamite. 

Detonators or Exploders. — For use with high explo- 
sives, detonating caps are essential to impart a sufficient 
initial impulse to develop the full strength of the powder. 
These differ from caps employed for sporting ammunition 
in that the heat engendered in exploding the fulminate is 
employed in the latter to ignite the powder, the quality of 
the fulminate used being very low, and fired in contact 
with the powder. In the case of detonators, however, the 
fulminate is enclosed in a copper capsule, out of contact 
with the explosive. The detonation of the fulminate pul- 
verizes the end of the capsule, so that the temperature 
resulting from it is communicated to the explosive; but 



EXPLOSIVES 333 

it is the violence of the shock that is rehed upon to start 
the detonation of the high explosive. 

The stronger the detonator used, the more powerful 
will be the detonation of the dynamite or other high 
explosive. The treble strength should be used in ordi- 
nary practice, as it is more economical than the lower 
grades. 

The end of the capsule above the composition is left 
open to receive the end of the fuse, the fulminate composi- 
tion being held in place by shellac, collodion, thin copper 
foil or paper. In electric detonators, a piece of resistance 
wire is compressed in the composition, the ends being at- 
tached to copper wires leading out through a hard plug of 
sulphur and ground glass which fills the capsule. These 
wdres are wound with cotton insulation. The heating of 
the short piece of resistance wire to incandescence, due to 
the passage of the electric current, explodes the fulmin- 
ate. This is the most reliable form of electric detonator, 
which, however, requires currents of great intensity, though 
of low^ tension, to fire a large number of detonators. For 
this purpose, powerful electric machines are required. 
There are also other types of caps. A bridge detonator 
depends upon electric sparking to fire the composition. 
This form of detonator is very sensitive, and great care 
should be taken in its manipulation and coupling. 

Making up Cartridges. — In the use of fuse for ex- 
ploding gunpowder, it is only necessary to see that the 
end of the fuse is well buried in the charge, no matter 
whether the powder is poured loose into a dry hole, or 
made up in cartridge form. When made up into cartridges, 
the ends of the paper should be securely tied around the 
fuse, but not so tightly as to constrict it or break the con- 
tinuity of the powder core. The cartridges may be made 
by using a long strip of brown paper, folding one end 
around the end of a cylindrical wooden form, and then 
spirally winding the paper around the form with the edges 
well overlapping. Before removing the case, it should be 



334 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

dipped into melted paraffin, applying several coats. If 
the hole is very wet, another wrapping in the reverse direc- 
tion, with a coating of paraffin, will insure the dryness of 
the charge. After loading and attaching the fuse, it may 
be immersed up to the fuse in melted paraffin, making 
sure that it is not appreciably hotter than the melting point 
of the paraffin, viz., 113° F. This will make a perfectly 
water-tight cartridge, but it cannot, of course, be rammed 
into a hole without destroying its waterproof qualities. 

Detonators are only employed with high explosives. 
One end of the cartridge paper is opened, and a hole is 
made by firm pressure with a hardwood instrument, with 
a rounded end, no larger in diameter than the cap to be 
inserted. The hole should be driven to no greater depth 
than is suitable for the cap, so that the end of the cap 
will reach the bottom of the hole and leave at least | of 
an inch of the end of the copper capsule projecting above 
the end of the cartridge. Otherwise, the fuse, coming in 
contact with the dynamite, may ignite and explode it 
before detonation can occur, thus greatly reducing the 
power of the explosive, and producing deleterious fumes 
from the imperfect combustion of the powder. The ends 
of the paper of the cartridge are then drawn closely around 
the fuse and tied as before. The cartridge thus prepared 
is called the "primer." The same method is pursued in 
placing the electric detonator, with the difference that it 
is not objectionable to bury the cap in the dynamite. 
Under no circumstances, however, must this be done with 
caps fired by a fuse. It is of the utmost importance, in 
order to realize the full force of the explosion, that the 
cap shall fit neatly and perfectly in the hole made for it 
in the dynamite. An air space, even of a small fraction 
of an inch below the cap, will serve as a cushion, masking 
the force of the detonation of the cap, thus reducing the 
initial violence of the explosive wave imparted to the 
dynamite upon which directly depends the violence of 
the explosion which it produces. 



EXPLOSIVES 335 

The end of the fuse, which is to be inserted into the 
cap, should be squarely cut off, preferably with a fuse- 
cutter, such as is supplied by all dealers in explosives. The 
fuse should then be held vertically with this end upper- 
most, slipping the cap lightly over it. The cap should 
not be pressed on the fuse, nor turned on the end of the 
fuse, as the friction thus generated may explode the cap. 
The walls of the cap should then be crimped upon the fuse, 
about I of an inch below its upper end, by means of a crimp- 
ing tool which is combined with a fuse-cutter. No other 
instrument should ever be used. Under no circumstances, 
should the cap be fastened to the fuse by biting the cap 
with the teeth. Serious and fatal accidents have frequently 
resulted through this form of carelessness. 

A lighted candle should never be carried in the hat 
when making up cartridges, as hot grease of the candle 
may drop on the caps or powder and cause an explosion. 
The candle should be placed at least 2 feet to one side. 

SMOKING SHOULD NEVER BE PERMITTED W^HEN HANDLING 
EXPLOSIVES, MAKING UP CARTRIDGES OR CHARGING HOLES. 

Charging Holes with Black Powder. — After removing 
the sludge, dry the hole with a wisp of hay, or a rag, or 
cotton waste, fastened to the end of a rod. Then pour in 
the powder through a copper or tin funnel with a long 
stem, so that the powder will reach the bottom of the hole 
without touching its sides above the limit of the charge. 
If the hole is horizontal, a long scoop may be used, filled 
with powder, which, when at the end of the hole, is turned 
around to deposit the charge. For either horizontal holes, 
or those inclined upwards, the powder ma}^ be placed in 
small paper bags, being closely pressed into the hole. For 
wet holes, waterproof cartridges must be made as previously 
explained. The fuse should then be put into place, and in 
case the hole is filled with powder in paper bags, the fuse 
should be tied to the last bag. Dry clay should then 
be pressed over the charge, followed by the ordinary damp 
clay tamping, pressed firmly for three inches, after which 



336 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

it may be rammed by tapping the end of the tamping stick 
with a hammer. In holes one inch in diameter, the charge 
can not blow out 7 inches of good tamping. With a hole 
two inches in diameter, 18 inches of tamping are required. 
A three inch hole requires 20 inches of tamping. These are 
the lowest permissible limits and an excess should always 
be used. The amount of the charge has no relation to 
the length of tamping required. The determining factor 
is the diameter of the hole. 

Charging Holes with Dynamite. — The several cart- 
ridges constituting the charge are first inserted, care being 
taken to have the bore-hole of such a size that they may 
freely pass to the bottom without binding. It should 
never be necessary to force them to the bottom. In order 
that they may be compressed to fill the entire width of 
the hole, the cartridge paper must be cut lengthwise. 
This should be done with a copper blade, and not with a 
steel knife, as the use of the latter is attended with danger. 
The cartridges should then be firmly compressed with a 
wooden tamping rod, but they should never be rammed. 
Firm pressure only is allowable. No steel or iron in- 
strument should ever be used in charging any kind of 
explosive in a bore-hole. The cartridges should be so 
well compressed upon each other that no air spaces rem.ain 
between them. Otherwise, an air cushion will be produced, 
and if it should not cause a portion of the charge to escape 
explosion, it would at least prevent perfect detonation, 
weakening the effect of the explosive. The primer, pre- 
\dously described, is usually inserted last. The cartridge 
paper should be firmly tied to the fuse above the cap with 
a string, one end of which should be long enough to admit 
of lowering the primer into the hole with it. Lowering 
the primer by the fuse or wires is apt to loosen the cap. 
An air cushion would thus be formed below it, reducing 
the power of the explosion. Carelessness in regard to this 
simple detail is one of the most common causes of waste 
in the use of dynamite. The primer should never be 



EXPLOSR^S 337 

COMPRESSED OR RAMMED UPON THE CHARGE. The tampillg 

should then be placed in the hole, using the same clay 
tamping as required with black powder. Tamping should 
be absolutely free from gritty particles. The best material 
is clay, damp enough to merely retain its form when 
compressed into a ball in the hand. Pellets of this clay 
should be dropped into the hole and very lightly compressed 
with a wooden tamping rod until about six inches of the 
hole above the charge has been filled. From this point to 
the top, the tamping may be more firmly compressed, but 
it should never be rammed. 

Firing the Charge. — The free end of the fuse should be 
kept out of water and no two fuses should cross each other. 
A slit should be cut one-half an inch long in the end, to 
sufficiently expose the core for prompt lighting. Wicking, 
or other material soaked in oil, should never be attached 
to the end of the fuse for igniting it, but if desired, dry 
paper may be tw^isted upon the end. If properly slit, and 
turned sideways, so as to expose the core without shatter- 
ing out the powder, the fuse can be readily hghted with a 
candle flame. 

For the electric firing of black powder, low powder ful- 
minating caps are employed. It is erroneously stated by 
many that the power of black powder is increased by the 
use of the fulminating cap, i.e., that it is detonated. As 
a matter of fact there is no advantage in the use of strong 
detonators with common black powder. 

In firing b}^ electricity (battery), the ends of the copper 
wares, attached to the detonator, should be twisted tightly 
upon the ends of the heavily insulated ''leading wires." 
The ends should be bent over, forming a hook, so that the 
detonator wires cannot, for an}^ reason, become detached. 
The ends of the wires should be scraped bright, so as to 
insure ample contact between clean surfaces. Where more 
than one hole is to be fired at the same time, separate 
connecting wires should be employed to connect the whole 
series of charges. Care should be taken not to allow any 



338 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

bare portions of one wire, or even the insulated part of a 
wire, to touch another wire, nor to come in contact with 
damp earth or rock. The leading wires should never be 
twisted together, nor carried to the working face in con- 
tact with each other. They should not be in contact with 
pipes or other metallic objects, nor should they lie in 
water. Disregard of these precautions will often result in 
^^short-circuiting" or grounding the current, causing either 
failure to explode the charges at all, or a misfire in some 
of the holes. The hands of the operator, while connecting 
the wires, and especially while connecting the leading wires 
to the battery, should be perfectly dry. 

The standard blasting battery of to-day is a dynamo- 
electric machine, which is not affected by moderate damp- 
ness, and which is always ready for use. This consists of 
an electro-magnet, between the poles of which rotates an 
armature, developing the current precisely as in an ordin- 
ary dynamo. The armature is driven by a rack and 
pinion, the current thus generated being rectified by a com- 
mutator. The armature is short-circuited until the rack, 
in descending, breaks the short circuit. The current then 
passes into the firing circuit through the terminals or 
binding posts to which the leading wires are attached. 
Machines which are operated by a crank are more sus- 
ceptible to accidents from a premature discharge than the 
so-called ^^pull up" batteries, worked by a rack and pin- 
ion. A machine is rated at the full number of detonators 
which it will fire under favorable conditions. To insure 
freedom from misfires, it should never be worked up to 
its maximum rated capacity. Nothing other than stand- 
ard firing machines should be used in firing charges where 
electricity is employed. 

Electrical firing is preferable to firing with fuse, as the 
danger of accidents, caused by premature or delayed fir- 
ing, are diminished. It also has the advantage that the 
charge can be fired at any desired distance at a certain 
specified time. The chances of misfires are also lessened. 



EXPLOSIVES 



339 



It gives the operator an opportunit}^ to station himself at 
a safe distance from the blast. 

Where fuses are employed, they should be in good con- 
dition and free from defects of any kind. One man should 
never be allowed to fire more than five holes at one time. 




Fig. 104 

Portable steel refuge house for safety of workmen during 

blasting operations. 

Courtesy United States Steel Corporation. 



If necessary to fire more at one time, he should receive 
assistance. 

Before firing, all persons in all directions or 

APPROACHES should BE GIVEN SUFFICIENT AVARNING TO 
ENABLE THEM TO GAIN A POSITION OF SAFETY. When tWO 

gangs of miners are drifting toward each other, one gang 
should always notify the other before blasting. On surface 
blasts, in connection with highway construction, etc., special 



340 PRACTICAL SAFETY IMETHODS AND DEVICES 

care should be taken to warn the pubhc, especially any 
children that may be playing in the vicinity. 

Misfires. — Holes which have misfired are dangerous. 
When the firing is done by electricity, no one should be 
allowed to approach the hole for at least half an hour. 
When firing by fuse, the hole should not be approached 
for at least two hours. It is then best to loosen the fuse, 
if possible, retreat quickly, and again wait for fifteen 
minutes. If no explosion occurs, then proceed to with- 
draw the tamping with a copper or wooden spoon. Never 

USE IRON OR STEEL INSTRUMENTS FOR THIS PURPOSE. In 

the case of high explosives, or of black powder which has 
been primed with a cap or detonator, remove the tamping 
to within about 3 inches of the charge, but no closer. 
Then recharge above this with a large charge of dynamite, 
and detonate it in the ordinary way. If black powder and 
fuse have been used, withdraw all the tamping, recharge 
above the old charge, and then fire. If djmamite is avail- 
able, it is safer to explode such a missed hole with a dyna- 
mite primer, which should not be compressed before firing. 
In all other instances, two kinds of explosives should never 
be used in the same hole. 

Thawing Dynamite. — Dynamite should never be used 
while in a frozen or partly frozen condition. It should 
never be bent, cut, or compressed in any way while in 
this state. Frozen dynamite should be carefully thawed 
before use. It should never be thawed by direct heat 
from a fire, stove, candle, matches or any other open light, 
nor should it be placed in a tin can or pail over a fire, or 
thawed in hot water. It should not be exposed to the 
direct rays of the sun, especially when transmitted through 
window glass. 

Dynamite should be thawed in a room heated by steam 
or hot water pipes, in which case the explosive should never 
be laid on the pipes. It may be thawed by placing it in a 
vessel surrounded by warm water. The proper temperature 
of the water is 125° F., which is approximately the tempera- 



EXPLOSIVES 341 

ture at which the bare hand can just be held in the watei 
without pain. The water should be separately heated and 
poured into the water space in the thawer. The thawer 
should never be heated over a stove or some other source of 
heat. All seams in the thawer should be absolutely smooth, 
so as to leave no crevices for the lodgment of dirt or nitro- 
glycerine. There should be a water space of at least 2 
inches between the inner vessel containing the dynamite and 
the outer vessel containing the water. Electric heaters for 
thawing dynamite are known to be less efficient and less safe 
than low pressure steam or hot water coils. 

In using any form of thawer, the cartridges should be 
free from sawdust. The vessel or tubes holding them 
should be kept very clean. The only way to make sure of 
keeping the thawer free from accumulations of nitrogly- 
cerine is to wash it out after each thawing with a strong 
solution of carbonate of soda (sal-soda or washing soda), 
which is best applied warm. 

Dynamite is never properly thawed if it feels lumpy at 
any part of the cartridge. It should be uniformly pliable 
throughout. Its use when but partially thawed is attended 
with danger in loading, and its detonation will be imperfect, 
with the consequent disadvantages of yielding a less power- 
ful effect and giving off noxious fumes. 

Dynamite should never be thawed underground. In 
cold weather it may be sent underground in non-conducting 
cases or packages to prevent it from freezing after being 
thawed on the surface. 

Adaptation of Explosives. — Adaptation of explosives to 
the kind of work to be executed is of the utmost impor- 
tance. Dynamites are not suitable for quarrying, except 
where rubble is being obtained. Only the lowest power 
(40%) should then be used. Black powder serves best for 
quarrying, bank blasting, etc., although joveite of the 
lowest power develops its explosive effect with sufficient 
slowness to be adapted to such uses. A slow acting powder 
is also essential for certain ores which contain galena and 



342 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

other minerals, which may be too highly pulverized by 
high explosives. High explosives pulverize and shatter; 
black powder fractures. The higher the power of the dyna- 
mite, the larger is the sphere of pulverization. For rail- 
road work, chambering, and for ''dead work" in mines, 
such as shaft sinking, tunnel driving, etc., it is advanta- 
geous to use the higher grade of powders, such as 60% and 
75 % dynamites, or their equivalents in other forms of 
high explosives. 

Hints on Blasting. — There are few operations in min- 
ing or quarrying where a workman can display a higher 
degree of skill, and effect larger economy, than in the proper 
placing of bore-holes, and in the proper adaptation and 
adjustment of the charges to the work at hand. 

For the most part^ efficient work in blasting is a matter 
of experience and good judgment. This cannot be taught 
in books, but there are a few general fundamental rules, 
and in proportion as these are understood and applied, 
blasting will be conducted with a greater system of econ- 
omy and safety. Unsystematic effort is always wasteful 
and costly. System implies the recognition of definite 
principles according to which the work is laid out and 
prosecuted. 

A few points of prime importance, which should be 
observed, are the following: 

1. The strength and quantity of the explosive should be properly propor- 
tioned to the cohesive strength or resistance of the rock. 

2. The " burden," or line of least resistance (i.e., the shortest hne that can 
be drawn from the charge in the bore-hole to the outer free face of the rock), 
should bear a proper relation to the strength of the explosive and to the resistance 
of the rock. 

3. If the working face of the rock is so blasted as to leave two or more free 
faces, for future blasts, instead of one, the power required to overcome the 
resistance of the rock will be reduced, and explosives should be economized. 

4. A seam or fissure is a valuable aid in blasting, if the hole is so located 
that advantage of this weakness may be taken. On the other hand, the power 
of the explosive may be expended along such a seam without doing useful work, 
if the hole is improperly located. 

5. Breaking to regular benches and faces is more economical than irregular 
breaking, because the condition of the rock can be more carefully observed, 



EXPLOSIVES 343 

admitting a more intclligont i^hicinj; of sul>s(>quont bore-holes. In addition, it 
facilitates the setting up of machine drills. It is also more convenient for work 
by hand drilling, keeping the face in better condition for a complete and economical 
extraction of ore or rock. 

G. Simultaneous firing is more economical, in most cases, than firing singly 
or in series, for the reason that the adjacent charges assist each other, reducing 
the amount of explosive required, as well as the total length of holes to be drilled 
for any given volume of rock. 

7. Careful charging, so as to secure as highly compacted a charge as pos- 
sible, greatly increases the efficiency of the explosive. 

8. A well prepared i)rimer, in the case of high explosives, is the key to a 
successful detonation of the charge, upon which, other things being equal, its 
efficiency depends. 

9. The efficiency of all explosives is dependent, to a considerable extent, 
upon the kind, length, and degree of compactness of the tamping. 

10. The object of blasting in mines and quarries, and in construction opera- 
tions, is to rupture the rock so that it may be removed, not to hurl it to a dis- 
tance, i.e., not to secure what military engineers call a "ballistic" effect. Hence, 
only enough explosive should be used to accomplish the former. When frag- 
ments are thrown more than a few feet by a blast, it is generally an evidence that 
the proper relation did not exist between the charge and the burden, or that 
too large a charge was used for the length of the line of least resistance. 

Storage. — Local conditions should determine the type 
of structure to be built for an explosives magazine. In 
general, the lighter the construction the better. Thus, in 
event of an explosion, the building will be completely dis- 
integrated, no pieces being thrown to a distance. This 
reduces the radius of danger to a minimum. In case of 
danger from fire or robbers, a heavier construction will 
be required. 

^Magazines should be located at a safe distance from 
dwelhngs, factories, public buildings, highways, and rail- 
ways. The following table gives the minimum distances 
between barricaded magazines and railways, highways, or 
inhabited dwellings and buildings. For any magazine, not 
protected by a substantial artificial or natural barricade, 
the distances should be doubled. 



344 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 





Proposed 


Distance 




Proposed 


Distance 


Quantity of 






Quantity of 
Explosives 






Explosives 










Stored 


Inhabited 


Public 


Stored 


Inhabited 


Public 




Building 


Railway 




Building 


Railway 


Pounds 


Feet 


Feet 


Pounds 


Feet 




Feet 


50 


120 


70 


10,000 


890 


535 


100 


180 


110 


20,000 


1,055 


635 


200 


260 


155 


30,000 


1,205 


725 


300 


320 


190 


40,000 


1,340 


805 


400 


360 


215 


50,000 


1,460 


875 


500 


400 


240 


60,000 


1,565 


940 


600 


430 


260 


70,000 


1,655 


995 


700 


460 


275 


80,000 


1,730 


1,040 


800 


490 


295 


90,000 


1,790 


1,075 


900 


510 


305 


100,000 


1,835 


1,100 


1,000 


530 


320 


200,000 


2,095 


1,255 


1,500 


600 


360 


300,000 


2,335 


1,400 


2,000 


650 


390 


400,000 


2,555 


1,535 


3,000 


710 


425 


500,000 


2,755 


1,655 


4,000 


750 


450 


600,000 


2,935 


1,760 


5,000 


780 


470 


700,000 


3,095 


1,855 


6,000 


805 


485 


800,000 


3,235 


1,940 


7,000 


830 


500 


900,000 


3,355 


2,015 


8,000 


850 


510 


1,000,000 


3,455 


2,075 


9,000 


870 


520 









It is important to select a site with a natural barricade 
such as surrounding hills or knolls, otherwise an artificial 
barricade of earthwork mounds should be constructed, if 
the country is inhabited thereabout. It is, however, essen- 
tial to select a site that will admit of good drainage. It 
is better to erect the magazine on sandy soil, than on rocky 
ground or soHd rock, for, in the event of an explosion, the 
effect of the explosion waves will be greatly diminished and 
far less reaching than if the magazine were constructed on 
sohd rock. When the magazine is partly or wholly below 
the surface of the ground, the barricades are more effective, 
but it is then sometimes impossible to secure good drain- 
age, which is of prime importance. 

Under no circumstances should explosives be stored in 
caves, tunnels, earth or stone-covered vaults, or in log 
structures. These structures will hold dampness, and any 



EXPLOSI\^S 345 

dampness is sure to render the explosives dangerous for 
subsequent use. 

A suitable building is one made of common weather- 
boarding on a framework of 2" X 4" stock, with a tight 
flooring of tongued and grooved boards, blind nailed, with 
walls and ceiling sealed with the same material. The roof 
should be protected with tarred paper. Where there is 
danger of fire the lightest steel shingles should be used 
on the roof and outer walls. The door should be heavy, 
and should open outward in all cases. Openings for ven- 
tilation should be provided around the bottom, protected 
by wire screens against the entrance of vermin, being so 
constructed that water cannot enter. A hooded ventilat- 
ing pipe should extend from the ceiling through the roof. 
Where danger of explosion from the bullets of firearms 
is at all likely, safety may be insured by constructing a 
wainscoting inside the magazine, leaving a space of six 
inches between it and the wall, made sufficiently tight to 
hold fine dry sand, with which the interspace should be 
closely filled. This will be sufficient to stop any bullets 
from entering the magazine. The structure should be cov- 
ered with a network of wires, which should be grounded 
at several places. The earth plate should be large, and 
placed either in water or permanently moist soil. The 
magazine should be located as far as possible from build- 
ings, railroads, working places, and highways, as is consis- 
tent with existing conditions. It should be plainly marked 
upon all sides, and upon the door, with large conspicuous 
''danger — HIGH explosives" sigus. A weatherproof pla- 
card of instructions and rules should be placed upon the 
door. 

Before making any repairs or alterations in a magazine, 
all explosives should be carefully removed to a safe place. 
The interior of the building should be thoroughly washed 
with a strong solution of carbonate of soda. All tools 
used in making repairs should be of wood or brass. ^Many 
explosions have resulted in driving nails into the floors of 



346 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

old magazines, or buildings that have been used in the 
manufacture of explosives. The floors of magazines should 
be kept free from dirt, grit and other similar material. 

No artificial heat of any kind for thawing, or other 
purposes, should be introduced in a magazine. When 
thawing is necessary, the explosives desired for imme- 
diate use should be taken away from the magazine, and 
thawed in a suitable thaw-house above ground. 

When a new consignment of explosives is received, it 
should be stored in the magazine in such a way that the 
oldest explosives will be used first. 

For the storage of gunpowder, the magazine should be 
fitted up with racks, so arranged that the kegs may lie 
in a slightly inclined position. Dynamite should be stored 
in tiers, box on box, with battens between the successive 
layers of boxes to insure good ventilation and to lessen 
the danger from friction. 

Gunpowder in unopened kegs, dynamite in unopened 
boxes, and fuse securely boxed, may be stored in the same 
magazine, but no caps or detonators, or loose coils of fuse, 
should ever be stored in the same magazine or in any 
other place with gunpowder and high explosives. 

The magazine should be kept scrupulously clean. All 
loose leaves, dead grass, rubbish or other combustible ma- 
terial should be cleaned up in the vicinity of the maga- 
zine, on account of the danger from fire. No fire should 
be permitted near the building. Men with nails exposed 
on the soles or heels of their boots should not be allowed 
to enter or work in any magazine. Smoking in the 

VICINITY OF EXPLOSIVES SHOULD NOT BE ALLOWED. 

Gunpowder kegs should be rolled over every two or 
three weeks to prevent caking. Cases of dynamite should 
be turned over once every two weeks in order to keep it 
in a perfectly homogeneous condition. This is not neces- 
sary, however, if the dynamite remains frozen. 

No keg of gunpowder, or box of dynamite or other 
explosives should ever be opened in a magazine. The 



EXPLOSIVES 347 

kegs or canisters of gunpowder should always be kept 
closed, after removing the amount needed for immediate 
use. In the case of dynamite, it is best to unpack the 
total contents of the box at once, wipe off the sawdust, 
lay the cartridges upon their sides on planed board shelves, 
and then carefully remove all fragments of the original 
boxes and sawdust, which should be burned in the open. 
Such sawdust usually contains more or less nitroglycerine, 
unless the dynamite is in an unusually perfect condition. 
An oily stain on the cases indicates that nitroglycerine has 
leaked from the cartridges. The shelves in the building 
where the cases are opened should be frequently inspected. 
If an oily stain is observed, no matter how small, it should 
be thoroughly washed with a solution of carbonate of soda. 
The floor of the magazine should also be occasionally 
washed with this solution. 

Unopened boxes of dynamite should never be taken 
into a mine, since the removal of sawdust and fragments 
of the boxes is not so easily accomplished as it is from 
buildings above ground. Only dynamite cartridges which 
have been wiped free from sawdust and placed in clean 
boxes should be sent below. 

It is always advisable, upon receiving a fresh consign- 
ment of explosives, to test the qualit}^ and inspect the 
explosives to make sure that the material is in good con- 
dition. The opening of one box or keg out of every ten 
will usually suffice to detect any deficiency. If not in good 
condition, the manufacturers should be notified at once. 
If faulty, the explosives should not be returned, for their 
shipment under such circumstances, especially in the case 
of nitroglycerine powders, is dangerous. They should be 
destroyed. For this purpose, select a sufficiently isolated 
situation. Lay the dynamite cartridges on the ground, 
end to end, or in the form of a very open spiral. Pour 
paraffin oil over the entire train, or if this is not available, 
use kerosene. Ignite one end of the train with an ordinary 
fuse. Never use a cap for destroying dynamite. The dy- 



348 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

namite will burn quietly and safely when ignited with a 
fuse. It may also be destroyed by saturating it with 
yellow ammonium sulphide. 

Transportation. — In the transportation of explosives 
by ordinary road vehicles the points to observe are: First, 
the vehicle should be inspected to make sure that it is in 
good condition, and that it contains no projecting metal 
parts or nails inside the bed or sides. Second, that the 
cases containing the explosive are securely packed to pre- 
vent movement against or upon each other, or upon the 
sides and bottom of the bed. A small quantity of clean 
straw on the bottom of the bed and between cases is a 
necessary precaution, especially when the explosive is to be 
hauled over a rough road. After unloading, the straw 
should be gathered and burned at a safe distance from 
the explosives. Third, the cases should, in damp weather, 
be covered with waterproof canvas or tarpaulin. In warm 
weather, a white canvas cover over the vehicle is im- 
portant to prevent undue heating from the sun. Fourth, 
the vehicle should always be provided with a con- 
spicuous ^'danger, high explosives" flag to give neces- 
sary warning to everyone. Fifth, where possible, passage 
through a town, or the more densely populated sections 
of a town or settlement, should be avoided. Sixth, when 
necessary to pass through a town it should be quickly 
done, without making stops for any purpose. These or 
similar precautions are made obligatory by law in most 
countries. 

The following extracts from the ^^ Blasting Regulations" 
of the Municipal Explosive Commission of New York 
illustrate important precautions which should be observed: 

" Sec. 141. It shall be unlawful for any person to carry or transport ex- 
plosives through the streets, avenues or highways of the City of New York 
except in a wagon for which a permit shall have been issued by the Fire Com- 
missioner. 

" Sec. 142. Each wagon used for the transportation of explosives shall 
have strong running gear and a wholly enclosed wooden body moimted on suit- 
able springs. The bed of the wagon shall be of two thicknesses of sound boards, 



EXPLOSnTS 349 

free from knots, tongued and grooved, not to oxcoed three inches in width, so laid 
as to break joints, and to be bhnd nailed, with the top surfaces jilaned smooth. 
The only entrance to the wagon shall be by means of a door at the rear, which 
door shall ije kept locked except when the wagon is being loaded or unloaded. 

" Sec. 143. Each wagon carrying explosives shall be painted vermilion, 
and shall have painted on its sides and back, in easily legible white letters at 
least twelve inches high, the word ' EXPLOSIVES,' and in smaller letters and 
figures the name of the owner and the number of the permit. 

'' Sec. 144. Each wagon carrying explosives shall disi)la3' upon an erect 
pole on the front end thereof, and at such h(>ight that it may i)e visible from all 
directions, a red flag with the word 'DANGER' painted, stamped or sewn 
thereon in white letters. Each flag shall be at least 18 by 30 inches in size, and 
the letters thereon shall be at least 12 inches in height. 

"Sec. 145. Each wagon carrying explosives shall be drawn by a horse or 
horses amply able to draw the load. No unnecessary stops shall be made in 
transit, and while the wagon is at a standstill a person holding a certificate of 
fitness shall be continuouslj^ in charge thereof. 

" Sec. 146. Each wagon carrying explosives shall be continuously in charge 
of two competent persons, each holding a certificate of fitness as a handler of 
explosives, and no other person shall be allowed in or upon such wagon. 

" Sec. 150. It shall he unlawful for any person to place or carry in or upon 
a wagon containing explosives any exploders, detonators, blasting caps, or other 
explosive material, or to carry in or upon such wagon any matches or any 
mechanical device for producing spark or flame. 

" Sec. 151. No wagon containing explosives shall be driven for more than 
one city block along any street, avenue or highway within the City of New York 
over which there is an elevated railroad or under which there is a tunnel or sub- 
way for the transportation of passengers or freight, nor through a crowded 
street, avenue or highway. 

" Sec. 152. It shall be unlawful for any person to carry or transport in or 
upon a wagon within the City of New York any explosives in excess of 1,000 
pounds." 

For transportation of small lots of explosives about 
mines and quarries, they may be sent in tramcars, or 
lowered in skips, buckets or cages. Warning should al- 
ways be given of the approach of such a cargo. When 
feasible, this work should be done between ''shifts," so 
as to expose as few men as possible to danger. Only ex- 
perienced and trustworthy men should be detailed for 
service of this kind. The carrying of a case on the shoulder 
is often the safest mode of conveyance of a small quantity. 
Under no circumstances, should explosives be carried 
UP OR DOWN LADDERS, cxcept in very small quantities 
to working places for immediate use. 



350 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

The regulations governing the transportation by rail- 
roads vary with different companies, being more or less 
limited by legislation. As an example of voluntary regu- 
lations by a railroad company may be cited those which 
went into effect on September 25, 1899, on the Pennsyl- 
vania Railroad, a line which handles perhaps a larger quan- 
tity of explosive materials than any other in the world, and 
which has consequently had the most extensive experience. 
In order to show the degree of care which this corporation 
finds it advisable to take as a part of its business policy, 
the order is now quoted nearly in full: 

1. Explosives will be received for transportation over the above lines 
(P. R. R., P. W. & B. R. R., N. C. S. Ry., and \V. J. & S. R. R.,) branches, and 
immediate connections under their control, only under the following regulations. 

2. The safe transportation of explosives is believed to be largely influenced 
by the manner in which the explosives are packed for shipment. Furthermore, 
information in regard to the kind of explosive that is being transported is es- 
sential, in order that the railroad employees may not ignorantly do anything to 
incur danger. 

3. Classification. For transportation purposes, all explosives will be divided 
into the following groups: Common Black Powder, High Explosives, Smokeless 
Powders, Fulminates, Ammunition, and Fireworks. 

4. Common Black Powder. When these explosives are packed in pack- 
ages containing less than 20 lbs. each, these packages must be enclosed in a 
wooden box in such a way that the filling hole is up, and the boxes when filled 
must not weigh over 100 lbs. Each box must be stenciled on top — " Common 
Black Powder." The prismatic powders must be packed in tight tin boxes, 
which must be enclosed in a wooden box. The whole package must not weigh 
over 100 lbs. and must be stenciled as above. When 20 lbs. or over of sport- 
ing, rifle or blasting powder are contained in one package, this package is prefer- 
ably a wooden keg or cask. If iron kegs or casks are used, it is desired that they 
be enclosed in a wooden jacket, but naked iron or steel kegs or casks will be 
received. These naked kegs or casks must be so well made, and the filhng holes 
so well secured, that when filled with the same weight of sand as they are de- 
signed to carry of powder, and dropped in any manner a distance of four feet on 
a rail, they will not be ruptured and none of the sand will escape. These explo- 
sives will not be received in packages over 100 lbs. each except for export, when 
larger packages will be received. Each package must be stenciled as above. 

5. High Explosives. Under high explosives are embraced all explosives 
more powerful than ordinary black powder, excepting smokeless powders 
and fulminates. These include those known under the various trade names of 
Acme, iEtna, Atlas, Climax, Commercial, Dittmar, Forcite, Fumeless, Giant, 
Hecla, Hercules, Joveite, Big Chief, Judson, Samson, Rend-Rock, Rack-a-rock^ 
etc. The following regulations will apply to explosives of this group: 



EXPLOSIVES 351 

6. No explosive of this group will be received for shipment in the liquid or 
bulk form. Explosives like Rack-a-rock, one constituent of which is liquid, 
will be received, provided the liquid itself is not explosive, and provided the 
liquid is not packed in the same boxes with the other constituent. High explo- 
sives must be made up into cartridges, and the cartridges must be so arranged 
in the boxes that, when the boxes are loaded top side up, all cartridges will lie 
on their sides, and never on their ends. Each package must be plainly stenciled, 
" HIGH EXPLOSIVES — DANGEROUS," on top and one side or ends. Ex- 
plosives which consist of a liquid, combined or mixed with an absorbent material, 
must have the ingredients uniformly mixed, and the Hquid constituent thor- 
oughly absorbed. The amount of the liquid must be such that the temperature 
of the hottest summer day will not occasion leakage. The shells or cases con- 
sisting of paper or other material used in making the cartridges must be of such 
material, or so treated, that the liquid constituent of the explosive will under 
no circumstances be absorbed by the case or shell. 

Sections 7 to 10 refer to smokeless powders which will 
not be discussed here, they being solely employed for mil- 
itary and sporting purposes. 

11. Fulminates. Under fulminates, for the present, is included only ful- 
minate of mercury in bulk form — that is, not made up into percussion caps, 
detonators, blasting caps or exploders. Fulminate of mercury in bulk must 
contain, when packed, not less than 25% of water, and must, in this wet con- 
dition, be placed in a 12 oz. duck bag and securely tied. This duck bag must 
then be placed in a rubber bag, which rubber bag must then be filled with water 
and securely tied. The rubber bag and contents must then be placed in a tight 
cask, the empty space around the bag filled with sawdust, the cask filled with 
water and then bunged and sealed. Each cask must be stenciled " Fulminate." 

12. Under ammunition are embraced cartridges to be used in sporting or 
fowling pieces, etc., , . . Also under ammunition are embraced detonators, 
blasting caps, percussion caps, fulminators, exploders, track caps, fog signals, 
and other articles of like nature. The following regulations apply to ammunition. 

13. Cartridges or ammunition must be packed in pasteboard or other boxes 
and these pasteboard or other boxes must be again packed in strong wooden 
boxes, not too large or heavy to be readily handled by one person. Each package 
or case of ammunition must be plainly stenciled " Ammunition — Handle 
Carefully." . . . 

Sections 14 and 15 apply to fireworks. 

16. Loading Explosives Together. Black powder, high explosives, and 
smokeless powder of all kinds may be loaded together in the same car. Fulmin- 
ate, ammunition, and fireworks must never be loaded with each other, nor in the 
same car with black powder, high explosives or smokeless powder. . . . 

17. Shipping Days. Common black powder, high explosives, smokeless 
powders, and fulminates, in car load lots, will be received (when laws or ordi- 
nances permit) on any day except Saturday, and in less than car load lots on 



352 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Mondays and Thursdays of each week. Ammunition and fireworks will be 
received at any time, and may be loaded with other freight, except as provided 
in Section 16, but should, if possible, be loaded so as to avoid transfer at stations. 

Then follow regulations as to shippers' certificates, and 
certificates of inspection of the car containing explosives, etc. 

23. Selection and Preparation of Cars. Only box cars, which have been 
specially selected and specially inspected, will be used in the transportation of 
the first four groups of explosives, and they must be in first class condition in 
every respect, both inside and outside. The following points must be carefully 
looked after: The car must in no case have loose boards or cracks in the roof or 
sides, and the doors must shut so closely that no sparks can get in at the joints. 
When these explosives are loaded in car loads, the doors must be stripped, except 
when the cars are equipped with Wagner doors, which must not be stripped. The 
journal boxes and trucks must be examined, and so cared for as to reduce to a 
minimum the probability of hot-boxes or other failure, requiring the car to be 
set off before reaching its destination. The car must be carefully swept before 
it is loaded, and a careful inspection made of the inside. Holes in the floor or 
lining must be repaired, and special care taken to see that there are no pro- 
jecting nails or bolts, or pieces of metal which may work loose and produce holes 
in packages of explosives during transit. Short pieces of hard wood, two inch 
plank, must be spiked to the floor over king-bolts to prevent the possibility of 
their wearing through the floor and into the packages of explosives. 

24. Agents, and car inspectors at junction points, must refuse to receive 
from connecting hnes cars loaded with these explosives, unless the require- 
ments of section 23 have been complied with. 

25. Handling of Explosives. In handling packages of explosives at sta- 
tions and in cars, the greatest care must be taken to prevent their falUng or re- 
ceiving shocks in any way, and they must not be thrown or dropped, but must, 
as far as practicable, be passed from hand to hand, or carried by one or more 
persons, and must not be rolled on the platform or car floor, unless they are so 
heavy that this cannot be avoided. The agent must choose careful men to handle 
explosives, must see that the platform and feet of the men are as free as pos- 
sible from grit, and must take all possible precautions against fire. No un- 
authorized person shall have access to the explosives at any time while they are 
on the property of the Company. Should any packages of high explosives, when 
offered for shipment, show outward signs of any oily stain, or other indication 
that absorption of the liquid part of the explosive in the absorbent material is 
not perfect, or that the amount of the liquid part is greater than the absorbent 
can carry, the packages must he refused in every instance, and must not he allowed 
to remain on the property of the Company. 

26. All the articles enumerated in Section 12, under the heading of Am- 
munition, also fireworks and friction matches, or other articles of like nature, 
must under no circumstances be loaded in the same car with the other kinds 
of explosives provided for in this circular; nor when unloaded be put near those 
explosives in the freight station. 

27. Loading in Car. When explosives are packed in boxes, the boxes must 



EXPLOSIVES 353 

be so loadod in tho o:irs that they will lie flat, top side uppermost. Thoy must 
never be loaded on their sides or ends. \A'hen exi)l()sives are packed in round 
kegs containing from 20 to 100 lbs. they must be loaded on their sides in rows 
across the car. Larger casks, barrels or drums may b(^ loaded on their sides or 
ends as will best suit conditions. Whatever kind or form of packages, it is es- 
sential that after they are loaded they shall be so stayed that they cannot change 
position under the ordinary shocks of transportation. Especially must care be 
taken that they cannot fall to tlie floor or have anything fall on tln^m during 
transit. 

Section 28 gives instructions as to the marking of cars 
to indicate their dangerous contents, and Section 29 allows 
safety fuse, if properly boxed, to be loaded with other 
explosives. 

30. Handling Car Containing Explosives. Every person handhng ex- 
plosives in car load lots or less must exercise the greatest care to prevent acci- 
dents. A car containing explosives must be hauled as near the middle of a train 
as possible, and must not be placed next to a car loaded with oil or other inflam- 
mable material. The locomotive must remain attached to the car or to the draft 
containing a car of explosives in handhng it to and from a siding, if possible. 
When this cannot be done, a rope or pole must be used, but a flying switch must 
not be made with a car containing explosives. Other cars must not be allowed 
to strike a car loaded wdth explosives, and such a car must be so placed in a yard, 
or at a station, that it will be subject to as little handling as possible, and that it 
will be exposed to as Uttle danger from fire as possible. At everj'- point at which 
a train stops, the trainman in charge must make a special examination of a car 
containing explosives, and must carefully examine the journal boxes with a view 
to locating or preventing hot-boxes on these or adjacent cars. If it should be 
necessary to cut off, short of its destination, any car containing explosives, the 
conductor must advise the agent at the station w^here the car is cut off, and 
must also advise his superintendent from the first telegraph office. The agent 
at the point at which the car is cut off must use every possible precaution to 
prevent accident while the car is under his control. 

31. In Case of a Wreck. In case of a wreck involving a car containing 
explosives, the first and most important precaution is to prevent a fire. Although 
most of the group of high explosives will quietly burn in small amounts and 
without causing a disastrous explosion, yet it must be remembered that it is the 
characteristic of most explosives to burn, and consequently everything pos- 
sible must be done to keep fire away.^ 

Before beginning to clear a wreck in which a car containing explosives is 
involved, all unbroken packages should, if possible, be removed to a place of 
safet}', and as much of the broken packages as possible gathered up and like- 
wise removed. FurtheiTnorc, it should be borne in mind that " high exj^losives" 



^ The regulations should have called attention to the fact that most 
explosives in bulk, after burning a short time, become heated thereby to their 
exploding temperature, and then explode with violence. 



354 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

are readily fired by a blow, except when they are wet, by the spark produced 
when two pieces of metal, or a piece of metal and a stone, come together vio- 
lently. In clearing a wreck, therefore, care must be taken not to strike fire 
with the tools; and in using the crane or locomotive to tear the wreckage in pieces, 
the possibility of producing sparks must be considered. With such explosives as 
"common black powder," "smokeless powders," and "fulminates," thorough 
wetting with water practically removes all danger of explosion by fire, spark 
or blow; ^ but with the "high explosives" wetting does not make them safer 
either from fire, spark or blow. In case "fulminate" has been scattered by a 
wreck, the ground involved must, after the wreck has been cleared, be saturated 
with oil and fired. If this is not done, when the ground and fulminate get dry, 
small explosions will constantly occur whenever the mixed material is trodden 
on or struck with a blow. 

The following rules, concerning the methods of hand- 
ling and using explosives, have been prepared in a suitable 
condition to form the contents of a small pocket book of 
rules which should be issued by every company to all the 
men in their employ engaged in handling or using explos- 
ives. Simple short rules, such as these, will go a long way 
toward fixing in the minds of workmen the dangers to which 
they are exposed when handling explosives. 

RULES FOR EXPLOSIVES 

1. No employee shall be allowed to touch or handle explosives of any kind 
except those duly authorized to do so. 

2. Use great care in handling explosives at all times. Most accidents 
happen from carelessness, 

3. Never allow an inexperienced man to handle or use explosives. 

4. Never open a box of dynamite, or a keg of gunpowder, in a magazine. 

5. Never open packages of explosives with anything other than a wooden 
chisel and mallet, or other wooden tool. Never use a nail, wire, iron chisel, or 
other sharp metal or stone instrument to open the box or keg. 

6. There are two safe ways to thaw dynamite; viz., in a room heated by 
steam or hot water pipes, in which case the explosive must never be laid on or 
near the pipes; and in a vessel surrounded by warm water previously heated. 
Dynamite, gunpowder, caps, and other explosives, must never be exposed to 
the direct heat of a fire, candle, stove, gas-jet or any other open light. 

7. Never store caps, or fuse in open coils, with dynamite or gunpowder in 
a magazine, nor together in any other place. 

8. Never store caps and fuses together. 

9. Never carry caps and cartridges in the same hand. 

10. Never carry a box of dynamite, nor more than several cartridges, up or 
down a ladder, and even then be sure that none of the cartridges can possibly fall. 



^ Fulminates are sensitive to friction even when wet. 



EXPLOSIVES 355 

11. Xovcr crimp a cap upon a fuse with the teeth. Use a crimping tool, and 
carefully perform the operation. 

12. Never carry loose caps in your pockets. 

13. Never carry dj^namite cartridges about in your pockets, hoots or blouse, 
in an attempt to thaw them. 

14. Never leave cartridges, or parts of cartridges, lying about under any 
circumstances. 

15. Never toss or throw cartridges anywhere, nor toward anyone. 

16. Before firing, always give sufficient warning to everyone soon enough 
to enable them to get out of danger. 

17. Never rub a cartridge between the hands to com})lete thawing. 

IS. Never use a frozen, nor even a partly frozen cartridge, until it has been 
thoroughly thawed. 

19. Never reheat w^ater which has been used in a dynamite thawer. 

20. Never use a metal rod (other than copper) to force or tamp a cartridge 
into a hole. Always use either a wooden or copper tamping rod. Many acci- 
dents have resulted from the use of an iron or steel bar, or piece of drill steel, 
in loading holes. 

21. Never try to force a cartridge through too small a hole. 

22. Never attempt to deepen or redrill a missed hole. Remove the 
tamping to within three inches of the charge, recharge above this tamping 
and then fire. Always use either a copper or wooden spoon to remove the 
tamping. 

23. Never drill into a face where a hole has misfired until the tamping has 
been partly removed and the hole recharged and fired as above. 

24. Never return to relight a fuse, if the charge fails to go off, until having 
waited at least one hour. 

25. Never use an iron candlestick, nail, wire, knife, or any other metal 
instrument, for making a hole in the end of a stick of dynamite for the reception 
of the cap. Use a round nosed hardwood tool. 

26. After shaking a hole, allow enough time for the hole to thoroughly cool 
before a charge is placed in it. 

27. Never smoke w^iile loading holes, making up cartridges, or when near 
any explosives. 

28. Never carry a lighted candle in the hat when making up cartridges. 
Hot grease from the candle may drop on the caps or powder, causing an explo- 
sion. Place the candle two or three feet to one side. 

29. Never attempt to hasten an explosion with too short a fuse. 

30. Fuse should be at least 2 feet long for pops, block-holes, and shaking 
holes. When blasting holes, the fuse should be as long as the hole is deep, or long 
enough to insure perfect safety. 

31. One man must not fire more than 5 holes at one time. If necessary 
to fire more, get assistance. 

32. See that all approaches to working places are safely guarded until the 
blasting is over. Other gangs working nearby should be notified, stating the 
number of holes to be fired. 

33. Where two gangs of miners are drifting toward each other, one gang 
must always notify the other before blasting. 



356 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

34. Before blasting, have a definite understanding with your partner as to 
who is to return to rehght the fuse after giving a warning. 

35. Never use two kinds of explosives in the same hole. 

36. Never attempt to draw a wire from an electric cap or detonator. 

37. Never try to destroy a cap by striking it with anything, 

38. Never step on a cap or cartridge. 

39. Never prick the composition of a cap with a pin, nail, or any other 
instrument. 

40. Never take an unopened box of dynamite into a mine or tunnel. 

41. Keep dynamite and powder dry. Never allow it to become exposed 
to dampness. 

42. Always fire cartridges soon after charging wet holes, to prevent the 
nitroglycerine from leaking into cracks or crevices where it may be accidentally 
exploded later on. 

43. See that gunpowder does not lodge in any seams where it may later 
become accidentally exploded. 

44. Never attempt "trail blasting" with gunpowder, i.e., scattering a 
trail of powder from the charge to a point where it is to be ignited. 

45. On surface blasts, in connection with highway excavation or con- 
struction work, take particular care to see that the charges are well covered 
with logs chained together, with a covering, in addition, of heavy rope matting 
or matted iron wire, etc. Be sure to give sufficient warning in all directions. 
See that there are no children playing nearby. 

46. Use all possible care in transporting and handling explosives. 

47. Inspect all fresh consignments of explosives. Make the proper tests 
to be sure that they are not of inferior quality. 



CHAPTER XXII 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Eye Protection. — The eye is the most valuable exposed 
organ of the body. The preservation of vision is all im- 
portant to everyone. With the loss of vision vanishes the 
workingman's means of support for himself and his family. 
He then becomes an object of charity. Thousands of eyes 
are each year rendered sightless through negligence on the 
part of both employers and employees. Workmen are 
generally ignorant of the consequences which are likely to 
result in the failure to wear safety goggles in performing 
operations where the eyes are exposed to imminent danger. 
The process of educating and training workmen to wear 
goggles, where the eyes should be protected, should be un- 
dertaken with vigor. Employers should provide their 
workmen with individual pairs of safety goggles which 
are suitable for the work at hand. Goggles should not 
be interchanged among workmen on account of the danger 
of spreading disease and infection. Workmen should be 
required to wear goggles during operations in which the 
eyes are exposed to danger. This rule should be strictly 
enforced under penalty of discharge. DiscipHne may be 
necessary at the start as a warning to others. 

Workmen frequently argue that safety goggles are 
constructed of glass containing imperfections which may 
ruin their eyesight. This is true with inferior makes of 
safety goggles. Nevertheless, the market offers several 
reliable makes of various types which are of excellent qual- 
ity and workmanship, and which, at the same time, are 
comparatively cheap. Workmen also often complain that 
goggles are uncomfortable. This is mostly due to the new 



358 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



experience and to the imagination. After the goggles 
have been worn a few days, the workman becomes 
thoroughly accustomed to them. He is then barely con- 




FiG. 105 

Safety goggles with side protectors. 

Courtesy Julius King Optical Co. 

scious that he is wearing them. The best makes of safety 
goggles should be selected in fairness to the workmen who 
are required to wear them. 




Fig. 106 
Goggles broken by large chip of steel shown at left of figure. The eye of the work- 
man, who was wearing the goggles at the time of the accident, escaped injury. 
Courtesy Julius King Optical Co. 

Goggles should be as light as possible. Lenses should 
be of the best quality glass and free from imperfections. 
They should be circular in shape and at least 2" in diameter, 



MISCELLANEOUS 



359 



to permit ordinary eyeglasses to be worn under them. The 
lenses should be easily replaceable, so that new lenses may 
be inserted in the frame when the old ones become damaged. 
Side protectors should be placed on all safety goggles. (Fig. 
105.) ]\Ietal parts should be rust-proof, and easily adjustable 
by bending to conform to the 
shape of the face. 

Goggles should be worn 
when grinding, buffing, hand- 
ling molten metal, babbitting, 
chipping, filing, riveting, stone 
cutting and lumping, drilling, 
welding, sawing, handling 
acids, alkalies and other 
dangerous chemicals, and for 
all other operations where the 
eyes are exposed to extraordi- 
nary danger. 

Special types of goggles 
should be selected for certain 
kinds of work. Chippers' 
goggles should be constructed 
with extra thick lenses of tough 
glass, to avoid easy breakage. 
Boiler firemen require amber 
colored or shghtly smoky col- 
ored lenses, to protect their 
eyes from the glare of the 
fire. Steel furnacemen should 
use cobalt blue lenses of a uniform shade. Dark green 
lenses are best for oxyacetylene welders. Electric arc 
welders require a combination of red and blue lenses to 
give the effect of a deep violet color which will protect 
their eyes from the ultra-violet rays. A helmet is neces- 
sary in electric arc welding to protect the face from 
intense heat. (Fig. 108.) Sand blast operators should wear 
dust proof hoods with inserted lenses. (Fig. 109.) The 




Fig. 107 
Electric lamp bulb covered with a 
deposit of fine emery dust from 
grinding wheel below. This 
vividly illustrates the need of 
an efficient exhaust system to 
remove all dust while grinding, 
and of wearing suitable goggles 
to protect the eyes. 

Courtesy Julius King Optical Co. 



360 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

hood should be arranged to exclude every particle of dust. 
It should be made tight around the neck by means of a 
sliding strap, the air being taken in through a filter gauze 
and sponge in the mouthpiece. A light helmet should be 




Fig. 108 
Helmet in use while arc welding. 
Courtesy Julius King Optical Co. 

fastened inside to protect the head and keep the hood in 
place. 

Workmen should be required to use fine portable screens 
when chipping, to prevent flying chips from injuring the 
eyes of others. These portable screens should also be used 
in stone cutting and lumping. Wherever there is danger 



MISCELLAXIOOUS 



301 



of injuring the eyes of passersby, portable screens should be 
employed. 

Respirators. — Respirators should be worn when working 
in an atmosphere laden with dust, or containing harmful 
vapors and fumes. They are especially important if the 
atmosphere contains irritating or poisonous gases. 
Respirators should be provided with a pneumatic cushion, 
fitting snugly about the face. The vision should not be 
obstructed in any way. The respi- _ 

rator should contain a removable 
sponge which may be taken out 
for frequent washing. 

If respirators are not worn, 
when working in a dust laden at- 
mosphere, the lungs gradually be- 
come filled with minute particles. 
These little particles seriously injure 
the lungs, preventing them from 
efiicienth' performing their function. 

Hand Tools. — A vast number 
of accidents may be directly attrib- 
uted to the use of improper and 
defective hand tools. Tools with 
burred or '^mushroom" heads, or 
loose and defective handles, should 
never be used. (Fig. 110.) The 
danger in using these ragged edged 
tools is readily apparent. If the tool is hit a glancing 
blow, a piece of steel from the edge may fly at high 
velocity into a workman's eye. ]\Iany eyes are rendered 
visionless from this cause. Such tools should be regularly 
trimmed by a blacksmith. When using such tools, goggles 
should always be worn. Tools should be periodically 
inspected, and no tools which are in a dangerous condition 
should be issued. 

Badly worn hfting jacks are a source of danger. Files 
without handles should not be used, as there is danger that 




l^'iG. 109 
Hood, with respirator attach- 
ment, used for sand blasting. 

Courtesy S. F. Hayward Com- 
pany, Xew York. 



362 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



the handle point may be accidentally rammed into the 
palm of the hand. The handles of hammers, sledge 





Fig. no 

Safe and unsafe hand tools. 
Courtesy Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co. 

hammers, axes, picks, shovels, hatchets, 
adzes, and mallets should be in sound 
condition. 

Cutting dies for various uses should 
be provided with long 
handles, so that the tools 
may be held in position with 
safety when cutting. Safety 
handles should be used with 
hand drills, chisels, and 
punches, to avoid injuring 
the hands by hammer 
blows. Dies of various 
kinds may also be provided with safety handles. (Fig. 

111.) 

Hammers should be made with corrugated heads to 




Fig. Ill 

Safety handle for shoe die. 

Courtesy J. K. Krieg Company, New York. 



MISCELLANEOUS 



363 



slanciii"; off nails as the latter 



are 



1 against sti'ikinji; hi<i;hly 




Fig. 112 
Safety hammer with corrugated 
head. 

Courtesy Gcnnantotcn Tool Works. 



prevent the heads from 

being driven. 

Workmen should be caution(M 

tempered steel with a 

hammer or similar tool. 

Tempered steel is so brittle 

that chips are likely to fly 

if it is hit a sharp blow. 

Blacksmiths should use 

care in tempering hand 

tools. Highly tempered 

tools for chipping, or for 

similar operations, are 

dangerous, for the reason 

above stated. 

Accidents caused by the 

slipping of wrenches are frequent. The type of wrench 

shown in Fig. 113 is much safer than the ordinary wrench, 
and is more practicable for many purposes. 
The use of this style wrench will greatly 
decrease the danger of bruising knuckles. 
The greater the pressure exerted on the 
handle of the wrench, the tighter it grips. 
Ladders. — All portable ladders should 
be equipped with safety shoes to prevent 
slipping. Steel spurs, ^^ porcupine '^ feet, 
or basswood shoes should be used in con- 
nection with wooden flooring. (Fig. 114.) 
Carborundum, basswood, or lead shoes 
should be used for concrete, brick, and 
stone flooring. The shoes should be so 

Courtesy Shaw Propeller piloted that the ladder may be placed 

Company, Boston. ^ ^ . . 

at a steep angle without danger of slipping. 

Ladders used for work on shafting should be equipped 

with substantial hooks at the top which fit over the shaft. 

Stationary ladders should be continued upward at least 

3 feet above a platform or landing. Stepladders should 




Fig. 113 
Safety wrench. 



364 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



also be provided with safety shoes. Some material, such 
as corrugated rubber, should also be placed on the treads, 
to prevent slipping. Stepladders should be equipped with 
a self-locking device to prevent them from accidentally 
collapsing when in service. 

Rungs of ladders should be spaced from 10" to 12'' 
apart. Stringers or uprights should be placed at least 15" 

apart to afford a safe footing. 
Ladders should be maintained in 
excellent condition and frequently 
inspected. Unsafe, defective lad- 
ders should be discarded. 

Great care should be taken to 
place ladders in a safe position 
before use. They should be in- 
clined at an angle of about 15° 
from the vertical. They should 
never be placed upon barrels, 
kegs or boxes, especially when 
empty, as these objects do not 
afford a safe support. All per- 
manent ladders should be of steel 
and securely fastened. Ladders 
to footways on scaffolds should be 

Safety shoes and hooks for ladders, fastened at both the top and bot- 

Courtesy Mining Journal. ^^^ ^y means of cleats. Material 

should not be carried up and down 
ladders. It should be hoisted or lowered by means of a 
hand line. Workmen should have the free use of both 
hands in climbing or descending. Where a ladder cannot 
be placed in a safe position for any work, an assistant should 
be summoned to hold it while a workman is using it. 

Traffic. — The proper handling of large crowds in con- 
gested parts of cities depends upon efficient police service. 
Persons should not attempt to cross city streets except at 
regular crossings, and then only upon the proper signal 
from a policeman. Before crossing, persons should look 




Fig. 114 



MISCELLANEOUS 365 

both waA's to make sure they can cross in safety. In 
crossing a street, one should always look to the left until 
half way across, and then look to the right for the remainder 
of the way. Thus one will always be looking in the direc- 
tion of approaching vehicles and cars. If the public would 
co-operate with the police and observe these simple rules, 
there would be few accidents at these places. The building 
of underground passageway's at congested crossings in large 
cities should be encouraged. This would eliminate much 
of the danger. Rules for slow automobile driving in cities 
and towms should be strictly enforced. 

Every municipality should, so far as it is possible and 
necessary, designate by white painted lines, several inches 
wide, safety zones and crosswalks on its streets. Policemen 
should be instructed to restrain pedestrians from crossing 
streets so marked except when within the indicated safety 
zone. These zones should be kept free from obstructions at 
all times. In addition, ''go" and ''stop" signal stands 
should be erected in the center of the square at all impor- 
tant crossings. These should be operated by the attending 
policeman. In this way traffic may be safely and easily 
regulated. 

All streets that are undergoing construction or repair 
should be safely fenced off or blockaded. Large warning 
signs, stating that the street is closed, should be placed at 
each end of the section. 

Dangerous curves on highways should be conspicuously 
marked by large warning signs — ''dangerous curve" 
placed at the proper distance from each end of the curve. 
Caution signs marked — " school — go slow " — should 
be conspicuously placed on sides of a street approaching a 
schoolhouse. 

The majority of automobilists, pleasure drivers, chauf- 
fers, and teamsters are extremely careless in approaching 
cross streets and railroad crossings. They make no attempt 
to slow down and look in both directions before crossing a 
railroad track, and they fail to drive slowly when approach- 



366 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

ing cross streets and rounding curves. They thus endanger 
their own hves and the hves of those entrusted to them. 

Sidewalks. — Sidewalks are frequently found in an 
unsafe and dilapidated condition. Slippery coal hole covers, 
light covers, vent grates, and curbs are common. Broken 
glass circles in covers and lights form holes which are a 
menace to pedestrians. Metal surfaces in the walk should 
be provided with carborundum strips to prevent slipping. 
Simple corrugations of the metal itself offer very little 
protection. Sidewalks should be free from obstructions 
such as hydrants, street sprinklers, steps, and railings. 
There should be no projections or depressions in the surface 
of a sidewalk. Granolithic sidewalks are far preferable to 
any other type. All openings in sidewalks should be pro- 
tected, and, where possible, gratings should be abolished. 
Broken parts of sidewalks should be immediately repaired. 
When coal holes are open, they should be guarded with a 
portable iron railing. Each coal wagon should be provided 
with such a guard. Openings formed when trap doors are 
lifted should be guarded by horizontal bars on each side 
which hold the doors open. 

Teaming and Trucking. — Breakdowns of trucks and 
wagons, which are heavily loaded, are not uncommon. 
Hence the desirability of frequent inspection of wheels, 
axles, springs, king-bolts, brakes, side studs, tailboards and 
chains, shafts, breeching hooks, seats, whiffletrees, and 
other parts. Wagons and trucks are often overloaded, or 
unevenly loaded, thus causing breakdowns or overturns. 
Loads should not exceed the capacity of the carrier. They 
should be properly blocked and secured to prevent slipping 
or shifting. The ends of long objects, such as pipes, rods, 
lumber, etc., which project beyond the rear of a wagon or 
truck, should be covered with padded burlap, with a red 
flag attached, so they cannot seriously injure a careless 
person by whipping or swinging up and down while passing 
through the streets. Parts of a harness may break at a 
critical and unexpected moment, causing much damage. 



MISCELLANEOUS 367 

Teamsters should be instructed to make a careful inspection 
each day of their wagons, trucks, and harnesses, before 
starting out. They should be warned against driving on 
or between railroad and trolley tracks. They should be 
cautioned to drive slowly between buildings and around the 
corners of buildings. Drivers should never leave their 
wagons and trucks in the middle of the street or road. 
This causes inconvenience to others, and endangers life 
and property. The rules of the highway should be observed 
at all times. Drivers should keep to the right, and avoid 
passing others when going around curves. Vehicles should be 
provided with proper lights which should be lit at sundown. 
A light should be placed at the extreme left of a vehicle 
to show the point of clearance, with a red light in the rear. 

Heav}^ teaming and trucking on asphalt pavement should 
be avoided as far as possible, especially in rainy or in 
winter weather, as it is then almost impossible for horses 
to secure a safe footing. Thus falls are numerous. Horses 
should be kept sharply shod, especially in winter weather. 
A safety shoe, which may be attached to the hoof of a horse, 
is now on the market. 

Drivers should prevent children from stealing rides where 
their safety would be endangered. 

Firearms. — Accidental shooting often occurs because 
careless persons fail to ascertain whether or not a gun or 
pistol is loaded. Loaded firearms are sometimes pointed 
by one person at another in an attempt to frighten, or in 
play, the bearer believing the arm to be unloaded. Acci- 
dental discharge then takes place, frequently causing a 
death or a serious injury. The pointing of any firearm 
toward another person, even though it is known or believed 
to be unloaded, is an exceedingly dangerous practice. 
Great caution should be used in handling, loading, and 
cleaning firearms. They should always be unloaded before 
cleaning. Xo firearm should ever be placed in the hands 
of a novice. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

RULES FOR FOREMEN AND GENERAL RULES 
RULES FOR FOREMEN 

1. Accident prevention is one of the foreman's most important duties; one 
that will require earnest determination and constant vigilance. The loss and 
waste involved in industrial accidents are enormous. Accidents increase the 
cost of production; cause sorrow, suffering, and distress, and impose a heavy 
social burden. No shop can be considered highly efficient that has many acci- 
dents. Frequency of preventable accidents among employees is a charge against 
a foreman's efficiency. 

2. Have a thorough understanding of all the safety rules. Unless you know 
them all, are living up to them, and enforcing them, you are not doing your full 
duty. 

3. It is your duty to see that all safety rules are observed by your men. 
You will be held personally responsible for preventable accidents to the men 
under you. 

4. Caution your sub-foremen regarding the prevention of accidents, as you 
are also responsible for the safety of the men working under them. 

5. Judgment should be used at all times in placing men on jobs. Heavy, 
slow men should not be placed on jobs where light, quick men are required. Slow- 
thinking, untrained men should not be placed around machinery, or any place, 
where presence of mind and knowledge are required, for, by so doing, the hazard 
is increased. 

6. If the same men are frequently injured, put them where they cannot get 
hurt. 

7. Do not place a man at new work unless he understands his new duties. 
If he does not understand them, explain them thoroughly to him. 

8. Obtain a thorough understanding of each accident, and study how its 
repetition may be prevented. 

9. Drill your men to immediately notify you when injured, no matter how 
slight the injury may be, and send them to the doctor at once. Even trivial 
wounds should be cleansed, bound up, and kept clean until they have healed. 
If not attended to, trivial wounds often become infected and result in serious 
consequences. 

10. Every foreman should make a weekly report of conditions in his de- 
partment on a form provided; and he should report any conditions that should 
be made safer, or which will increase efficiency. 

11. You should not put men to work on any job until you have inspected 
everything, and satisfied yourself that the place is safe. You should warn the 
men of any danger that may arise in the course of performing their work, and 



RULES FOR fori:mi:x 369 

watcli to see if your instructions nvc coniijlicd with. If you sec a man violatinjj; 
your instructions, or taking unnecessary chances that place him, or his fellow- 
workmen, in danger, tleal with him so as to make il certain that he will not 
again disobey orders. 

12. Injured men should not be allowed to go una.ssisted to the doctor, if 
the injury be serious. 

13. Never have two men working togeth(n- who cannot understand each 
other. 

14. Particular attention should be given to the fire-fighting apparatus. 
Acquaint yourself fully regarding it. vSee that it is always in plac(\ and ready for 
immediate use. 

15. Should any employee disobey your instructions, explain to him the 
reason why instructions were given, and the danger to himself and other em- 
ployees. If he persists in disobeying, he should be severely dealt with. 

16. Take notice of all reports or complaints of unsafe places, appliances 
or conditions; investigate the same thoroughh', and remedy the conditions 
where possii)le. 

17. When a job is finished, see that the safeguards arc properly replaced, 
antl all loose material removed. Do not allow machinery to be started before 
all safeguards have been replaced. If it is necessary to start the machinery 
without safeguards for the purpose of testing it, be sure that everyone is out 
of danger. 

18. Make it your personal duty to see that the safeguards and signs, 
installed to promote safety, are always in place and in good condition. 

19. Foremen should see that machinery and all other appliances are main- 
tained in safe condition, and that they are suitable for purposes intended; also, 
tihat exposed gearing, pulleys, belting, etc., are protected with shields, guards 
or railings, as necessitj^ requires. Belt shifters should be used in all cases for 
shifting belts. 

20. All appliances and safeguards should be frequently and carefully in- 
spected; and if machinery, tools or other appliances are dangerous, do not 
•continue to use them, but report their condition to the Safety Department. 

21. Be constantly on the lookout to see how conditions in your department 
can be kept safe and made safer. Unless you can properly make the improve- 
ments yourself, send all suggestions to the Safety Department. Constant vigi- 
lance is the price of safety. 



GENERAL RULES 

1. All employees should remember that, while every man is employed to 
do some particular work, the safety of himself and his fellow-workmen is more 
important than that work. Obtaining safe conditions is a matter of becoming 
more efficient. The study of safety is the study of the right ^^•'ay to do things. 
It will increase the efficiency of the work. Careful men are usually safe and effi- 
cient. Careless men are neither. 

2. Employees who wilfully disregard these rules, or show contempt for 
their own or their fellow-workmen's safety, should be discharged. Careless 
men should be cautioned. If they continue to show that they are a danger to 



370 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

their own and their fellow-workmen's safety, they should be transferred to 
positions where there is the least possible chance for them to harm themselves 
or others, or they should be discharged. 

3. Heads of departments and employees should be courteous to one another 
at all times. Co-operation between departments is absolutely essential. 

4. The use of intoxicating liquor should not be tolerated in the plant. Any 
employee, reporting for work under the influence of liquor, should be laid off or 
discharged. Hard drinkers should never be employed. The use of hquor by em- 
ployees outside of their work should be discouraged. Those who do not drink 
should be given preference for promotion. 

5. Men discharged for cause from one department should not be permitted 
to work in another department without the consent of the previous foreman, 
or unless authorized by the Department Manager. 

6. It is the duty of each employee to report every unsafe or dangerous 
condition he sees to his foreman or to the Safety Department, or drop a memo- 
randum of it into the Safety Suggestion Box. Any foreman receiving such a sug- 
gestion or notice should promptly remedy the unsafe condition, or report it 
promptly to the Safety Department. 

7. Loitering about the departments should be prohibited. 

8. During working hours, workmen should not engage in conversation, nor 
concern themselves with other matters that may be interesting, but that do not 
pertain to their work. 

9. Never disregard a warning sign. It has been placed there for a reason. 

10. Never fail to use a safeguard provided, and, under no consideration, re- 
move a safeguard unless you are authorized to do so. There is a severe legal 
penalty against removing safeguards. If, for any reason, it seems necessary 
to remove a safeguard, be sure to get the permission of the foreman. 

11. Wrestling, throwing of material, or fooling of any kind, should be 
positively prohibited. 

12. Fighting should be strictly forbidden, and those responsible for fighting 
should be discharged. The foreman should stop fighting, if possible, and should 
promptly report any fighting, with the names of participants, to his department 
head. 

13. Keep ofT railroad tracks except at regular crossings. Never walk the 
tracks to and from work. Before crossing any track, stop, look, and fist en. 

14. Smoking should be strictly prohibited in all parts of the factory. 

15. Goggles should be worn when grinding, buffing, chipping, filing, rough- 
ing, finishing, babbitting, handling molten metal, or in other instances where 
the eyes should be properly protected. 

16. Never strike tempered steel with a hammer or other tool. Pieces are 
likely to fly into the eyes. 

17. Never take short cuts over dangerous places. Do not leave work to go 
to other parts of the plant except on company business. 

18. Good, stout soles on shoes prevent injuries from nails and jagged pieces 
of steel, broken glass or other material. 

19. Employees should be forbidden to wear celluloid eye shields, cap visors, 
collars, etc. This material is very inflammable, and is likely to ignite from a 
spark or intense heat. 



GENERAL RULES 371 

20. Always thorouslily inspect planks and scaffolds hoforc doing any work 
upon thoni. 

21. X(>v(M" remove a guard while th(> machinery is i-unniiig. 

22. Never touch a valve, switch, clutch, l)elt shift (>r or other parts of ma- 
chinery, unless your duties require it. Never operate a machine with which j^ou 
arc unfamiliar. 

23. Never leave tools and mateiial about th(> aisles or working places for 
Others to stumble over. Keej) all maciiinery and working ))lac(>s clean and neat 
at all times. 

24. No tools should be us(m1 ha\-ing i)urr(Ml or " mushroom " luvids, or loose 
and (l(^fectiv(^ iiandl(>s. 

2"). Nev(M- us(^ a candl(\ lighted match, oil lamj), toi-ch or any other open 
light, in a room, or near any other i)lac(\ where gasoline or other volatile, explo- 
sive or inflanunable material is stored or used. Use an electric lamp, protected 
with a wire guard, anci see that the wires and connections are well insulated. 
Never smoke under these conditions. Gasoline is especially flangerous, and it 
should be issued in safety cans supplied by the company. Not more than a day's 
supply should ever be issued, and any left over should be returned at night. 

26. Never go to work when ill or partially incapacitated. If you become 
ill, quit work before an accident happens. Your own best interests, and those 
of your employer, require this. A person with serious physical ailment is 
peculiarly susceptible to danger. 

27. Never work about machinery if there is insufficient light. 

28. Installation of new machinery, or change or alteration of existing 
machinery, should only be undertaken after conference with the Safetj' Depart- 
ment. No new or changed machinery should be put into ojjeration until 
approved by the Safety Department. 

29. If you are injured, no matter how little, report it to your foreman at 
once. Go to the doctor, no matter how trivial your injuries. Never attempt 
to pick out anything from another person's eye. Send him to the doctor. 

30. Employees should be forbidden to rest upon, or lean against, any rail- 
ings or guards built upon, or alongside of, any dangerous places or machinery. 

31. Employees subject to epilepsy or fainting spells, or any other chronic 
affliction which causes loss of consciousness, should not be retained in any de- 
partment in which there are dangerous conditions. 

32. There are usually some employees who, tln\;ugh stupidity and care- 
lessness, are frequently injured. Such men should not be retained in the com- 
pany's employ, or if retained, should be placed at work where the chances of 
injury are remote. 

33. Employees should not throw oily waste, food scraps, waste paper or 
other refuse, inside of buildings or out of windows. Waste garbage cans should 
be providefl. The piling of oily waste under benches, or in out-of-the-way corners, 
should be positively prohibited. 

34. If you make an opening, or remove the co\'er from any ()p(>ning in the 
floor, ground or other place, guard that opening. 

3o. Workmen .should be forbidden to hoist any material by means of line 
shafting. All hoisting should be done either with hand block and tackle, or with 
regular hoisting machinery. 



372 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

36. Every employee whose duties require him to work with machinery or 
appUances, or tools of any kind, should examine them daily, and report promptly 
to the foreman any defect found. 

37. Never carry material up or down a ladder. Use a hand line. 

38. Do not turn on any air, steam or water, or set in motion any machinery, 
or throw down any material, without making sure that no one is in a position 
to be injured. 

39. After repairing machinery, always properly replace the safeguprds before 
Jeaving the work. When the work is completed, never leave tools and material 
overhead or around, but make the proper disposal of them. Tear down all 
temporary scaffolds as soon as the work is finished. 

40. Boards containing protruding nails should not be left lying around. 
Many accidents are caused from stepping on protruding nails in loose boards. 
When you see such boards, turn them over and pull out the nails, or put the 
boards where they can do no harm. 

■ 41. Always remove protruding nails after taking off the heads of barrels, 
kegs, or covers of boxes. Leave no metal scraps, broken glass, or other rubbish 
about, which may cause injury to anybody. 

42. Workmen are warned not to stand upon the heads of empty barrels, 
kegs or boxes. 

43. Care should be taken by men, working above other men, that they do 
not drop any material. When men are so working, they should place a sign 
beneath, " DANGER — MEN ABOVE." When you are going to work above or 
below other men, let those men know about it. Men working on high elevations 
from which they are likely to slip, or when working on smokestacks or roofs, or 
when washing windows, etc., should wear safety lines and belts. 

44. All persons, not authorized by the Chief Electrician, should be for- 
bidden to work upon any electrical apparatus. They should be warned against 
touching wires of any kind. Before doing any work where there is danger of com- 
ing in contact with electric wires, notify the Chief Electrician, who will send an 
experienced man to advise concerning the work. Do not try to fix the electric 
lights, but call the foreman. 

45. Employees should be forbidden to ride on engines, cars, overhead or 
locomotive cranes, elevators, or other moving bodies, except when required to 
do so by their duties. 

46. Do not fool with compressed air. Never blow the air on anyone. It may 
injure or kill him. 

47. Employees handling lumber, stones, brick, pig iron, sheet metal, metal 
scrap, glass and other material with sharp edges or projections, should wear 
gloves or mittens. 

48. Never taste of any chemical or liquid out of curiosity, nor drink from a 
glass in which chemicals have been used. Never leave poisonous substances about 
where others may come in contact with them. Keep them under lock and key. 

49. Never throw anything out of a window. 

50. Obtain a thorough knowledge of the location of all fire apparatus, and 
of how to use it; also, know the location of all fire alarms. 

5L Keep cool and calm in case of fire. Use your influence to maintain order 
and prevent a panic. 



(}KXi:UAT. RULES 373 

52. Workmen, foromoii, and inspectors should report any steam or water 
joints whieh are leaking;. 

oo. Workmen, whik' carrying an open light, should not enter oil houses or 
pits which are oil}', or which contain greas(>. 

54. No employee should go into an engine-room, electric motor-room or 
boiler-room, unless his duties require it, or unless \iv has receiv(>d special instruc- 
tions from the foreman. 

55. Be careful, when handling acid, not to l(>t it splash on your clot lies or 
person. 

56. Always use the handles when moving acid carboys. 

57. When removing drillings from the tlrill, or removing shavings from 
lathes, milling machines, etc., l)e careful not to get caught l)y the machine. Stop 
the machine first, or use something other than the hand to remove driUings and 
shavings. 

58. Employees should not spit upon the floors, passageways or walks. Re- 
ceptacles, provitled for the purpose, should be used. 

59. No one should handle, or assist in handling, dynamite or any high 
explosives or chemicals, unless he has received instructions satisfactory to the 
superintendent of the department. 

60. Vigilance and watchfulness ])romote safety. To avoid danger, the safe 
course should be adopted. Employees should never depend ui)on anyone else 
for their own safety. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

SANITATION, ILLUMINATION, HEATING, AND VENTILATION 

Sanitation 

Upon proper sanitary conditions, both in the factory 
and the home, depend the health and efficiency of em- 
ployees. A very large proportion of the laboring class is 
utterly ignorant of the principles of personal hygiene. 
The condition of some of the workshops in our large cities 
is a disgrace to humanity. Many shops still exist with an 
insufficient number of water closets, with flushes out of 
order, with cracked and dirty seats, with old wooden 
boxing about the bowls, with no supply of paper, with 
faulty plumbing, and with closets clogged with refuse. 
Many closets are located in cellars where there is no light 
or ventilation. Male and female closets are often found 
improperly separated. Indescribable conditions exist in the 
congested parts of large cities where the struggle for 
existence has smothered the progress of civilization. 

The beneficial effect of a clean, sanitary factory, well 
lighted and ventilated, is always reflected in the efficiency 
and loyalty of employees. Clean floors, freshly painted 
walls and ceilings, clean windows, sunlight, and a neatly 
kept factory are essential. 

Following are the general specifications for sanitary 
installations by the subsidiary companies of the United 
States Steel Corporation: 

WATER CLOSETS 
Location : 

(a) Closets should be so located to be as convenient as possible to the work. 
(6) There should be a number of small installations, rather than a few large 
ones. 



SAXITATIOX. ILLUMIXAIIOX. HI^ATIXC;, VKXTILATIOX 375 

(c) Each toilet room should hv so localod as to open to outside li^ht and 
air. The minimum amount of window space for a toilet room containinfi; one 
fixture must be four square feet, and for each additional fixture^ an addition of 
two square feet of window space must be made. These windows must be so 
constructed that they can be opened to give adequate ventilation to the room. 
Each toilet room should not have less than ten square feet of floor space and not 
less than one hundred cubic feet of air space for each fixture installed. 

(rf) Closets should be separated from lockers and wash rooms by partitions 
or otherwise. 

(e) Unless wash rooms are in close proximity to closet, each closet should 
be supplied with at least one wash basin. 

(/) An adequate number of urinals should be provid(>d in vnvh closet. 
Character of construction: 

(g) Xumber of seats should not be less than one to every fifteen persons, 
based upon the maximum number of employees in a turn in departments using 
the unit. 

(/?) Closets should })e of individual bowl type, and should be made of porce- 
lain or vitreous china, and not of enameled iron. 

(i) Every bowl should be separately vented and trapped. 

(j) The seat of each water closet should be made of wood or other non-heat- 
absorbing material and finished with varnish or other substance which will make 
it impervious to water. Under no circumstances should seats be made of enameled 
ironware, porcelain or other similar heat-absorbing substance. 

(k) The size of the opening should be at least seven inches in width and 
eleven inches in length. 

(I) There should be partitions between the seats, preferably of steel con- 
struction, enameled but not porcelain, six feet in height and twelve inches off the 
floor. 

(w) Distance between partitions should not be less than thirty inches, and 
distance from front of seat to door not less than thirty inches. 

(n) Partitions and bowls should be so arranged that the entire space behind 
and below the seat can be easily cleaned. 

(o) Doors should not be less than twenty inches in height. If of this di- 
mension, the lower part of the door should be placed twenty-four inches above 
the floor. 

(p) Clothes hooks should be provided. 

(q) Toilets should be adequately heated in cold weather. 

(/') Heating facihties should be so arranged as to permit proper cleaning of 
floors and walls. 

(s) Floors should be constructed of glazed tile or concrete, with a smooth 
surface. They should be non-absorbent. 

(0 Walls should also be made of non-absorl)ent material with a smooth 
surface, preferably glazed, not only to facilitate cleaning, but to avoid d(>face- 
ment. Corners should be of the cove type. 

iu) Walls and partitions should preferably be light colored to increa.se 
illumination and to facilitate cleaning. 

{v) Hose connection should l)e i)ro\'ided. 

(w) Toilet paper with proper holders should l)e furnished by the company. 



376 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

(x) Regular and thorough cleaning should be adopted. Disinfectant is not 
to be relied upon. 

(y) Someone should be especially delegated in attendance. 
Construction of the closet where there is no sewerage system: 

(a) There should be sufficient light. 

(6) There should be proper ventilation. 

(c) The hole in the seat should be at least seven inches in width and eleven 
inches in length. 

(d) For each hole there should be a close fitting cover. 

(e) All privies should have provisions for cleaning. 

URINALS 

(a) An adequate number of separate urinals should be placed throughout 
the mill convenient to where men work. 

(6) Troughs and basins should not be used for urinals. The wall or vertical 
slab urinal, with proper flushing, should be used ; preferably the porcelain stall. 

(c) There should be protection around the urinals to secure privacy. 

(d) Floor in front of urinals should slope to drain. 

SANITARY DRINKING WATER FOUNTAINS 

(a) Fountains should be located convenient to where men work. 
(6) They should be made attractive, preferably white in color, and kept 
clean . 

(c) They should be so designed as to make it impossible for a person, when 
drinking, to put his lips on the outlet for water. 

(d) They should be so constructed that of necessity a person must drink 
from a stream or jet, not from an overflowing bowl. 

(e) They should be so arranged that waste water will be carried away with- 
out slopping. 

WASH AND LOCKER ROOMS 
Location : 

(a) Washing rooms should be located in places most convenient to the men 
to be served, and if possible along the route when going from work, and without 
exposure to the weather. 

(6) So far as possible, they should be located in places where the men are 
least exposed to accident hazards while en route. 

(c) They should preferably be located in a separate building, or if within 
a building, they should preferably be enclosed. 

(d) They should be open to outside light and air. 
Building : 

(e) If a separate structure, the building should be of substantial fire-resisting 
construction. 

(/) Wash and locker rooms, located in the same building with toilet, should 
be completely separated by a partition. These rooms may be joined by swinging 
or self-closing doors. It is preferable that wash and locker rooms be separated 
by partitions. 



SANITATION, ILLI'MIXATIOX. Ill-ATIXC. \i;\'l'ILA TK )X 377 

(g) Tho rooms should 1)(> of sufliciciif size, so tli:it I lie incu (-m coiin cniciitly 
use cqiii])nuMit without iutcM-fcrcucc. 

{h) Floors and walls should he of coMcrch' or iioii-al)>oil)('iil material. 
Floors should slope toward the drain. 

(i) Drain should be located inider e(iuii)meiit , so water will luii toward and 
not away from fixtunvs. 

(j) Walls, ccilinji;s and partitions should he lij^iit in color to n'wv a neat 
appearance, to increase illumination, and to facilitate cleaning;. 

(A') Sufficient window space should he provided to gi\-e adeciuate \\ii.h\ and 
ventilation. 

(/) Rooms should also be adequately lif!;hted, artificially. Li^ht should Ix^ 
so distributed that fixtures are thoroughly illuminated, no dark corners being 
allowed to exist. 

(m) The room should ix^ i)rovided with ade(iuat(> and suital)le heating 
facilities. 

(«) Heating jiipes or radiators should be so installed as to give amj)le s])ace 
below and behind same for cleaning j)urp()ses. 

(o) Permanent hose connections should be j)rovided for thoroughly flushing 
and cleaning rooms. 

(p) Clothes hooks .should be provided. 
Fixtures : 

(q) Basins or troughs for connnon use should be installed. Facilities for 
washing hands and face should be such that of necessity a person must wash 
from a flowing stream. 

(r) The number of faucets for wasliing hands and face should not be less 
than one to every six employees, ba.sed upon the maximimi number employed 
on a single turn in the department using the equipment. Regular showers may 
be substituted for faucets. 

(s) Fixtures for washing the face and hands should be so spaced that a per- 
son can wash conveniently without splashing his neighbor. 

(/) Both hot and cold water should be provided for each fixtin-e. 
Lockers: 

((/) A locker or other method of caring for change of clothing should be 
provided for each employee who has a fixed place of work. 

(v) Lockers should be of steel with i)roper i)rovision for v(aitilation. They 
should be at least six inches off the floor. 

(w) Size of lockers should not be less than 12" x lo" floor space. 
Showers : 

(.r) The niunbcr of showers should not be less than one to e\-ei-v twenty-five 
employees, based upon the maxinunn nunil)er employed on a single turn in the 
department using the e(iuii)ment. 

iy) Each .shower should be .sejiarated by a partition. 

(2) The enclosure should be finished in a light color to give a neat apjx-ar- 
ance, and to facilitate cleaning. 

(aa) Showers should be provided with hot and cokl water, and should be 
equipped with a hot and cold water regulating valve, 

(hb) Regulating device should be .so located that it can be operated without 
standing under the shower. 



378 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

(cc) Supply pipes to showers should be overhead in order to avoid the possi- 
bility of a person coming in contact with a hot pipe, and also to facilitate cleaning 
of the shower enclosure. 

Care: 

(dd) Special men should be delegated to attend to cleaning of wash rooms. 

Employers should provide individual cloth towels, or 
roll paper towels, for the use of employees. The roll 
cloth towel, an active medium of spreading disease, should 
be universally abolished. Drinking cups, other than san- 
itary paper cups, should not be used. 

Water Supply. — It is important to acquire and main- 
tain a pure water supply. It should not be possible for 
natural or artificial drainage to contaminate the supply 
in any way. Chemical analyses of the drinking water 
should be made periodically. Impure water should be 
properly filtered. Much disease is spread by the use of 
contaminated drinking water; therefore, all possible pre- 
cautions should be taken to keep the supply free from 
dangerous impurities. 

Pure Food Supply. — Food should not only be pure, 
but it should be kept pure until consumed. Cloth netting 
should be placed over vegetables and fruits in warm weather 
to keep flies away. Screens should be employed to prevent 
flies from crawling over meats and other foods. Glass 
covers should be used in restaurants. White sanitary gar- 
ments should be worn by butchers, grocers, and others 
who handle foodstuffs. Floors should be kept free from 
dust and dirt. Before being swept, they should be covered 
with damp sawdust to prevent dust from rising. Glasses 
at soda fountains and other places should be kept in 
cabinets. Candies should be kept in cases. Milk should 
be delivered in sanitary cans and bottles. Dairies should 
be kept scrupulously clean. Unless the strictest sanitary 
precautions are observed, a great deal of disease will be 
spread through the medium of impure milk. 

Garbage Removal. — Proper attention should be given 
to the removal and disposal of garbage. Garbage and ref- 



SANITATION, ILLl'MIXATION. lll'.A'riXC. \i:\TI I.A TIOX 379 

use cans with covers should i^e i)la(*(Hl in huich rooms for 
employees, and in other places about tlie factory. J-hn- 
ployees should be forbidden to throw wast(^ food and re-fuse 
elsewhere. These cans should be (MupticMl daily, and the 
refuse burned. Rats and \(M-min oftcMi h()\(M- about garbage 
and refuse, spreadin*!; disease in various ways. If pix^sent, 
they should be trapped, destroyed, and buried. 

Expectoration. — Promiscuous expectoration sj)r(*a(ls 
much disease. To avoid this, cuspidors should be located 
at convenient places about the factory. They should be 
kept filled with a disinfectant solution, and should be 
washed and emptied dail\'. l"]ini)l()yees should be forbiddcMi 
to expectorate upon the floors, walls, i)assageways, and 
walks. City ordinances should forbid persons to spit ui)on 
sidewalks, in public conveyances, and in other public places. 
This should be made a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine. 
When sputum is deposited on floors, walks, or similar 
places, it dries in a short time. It may then be blown into 
the mouths and nostrils of persons, spreading disease in 
this way. Sputum may contain the germs of tuberculosis, 
syphilis, and other contagious diseases. 

Housefiies. — The common housefly is responsible for 
much disease. It often carries the germs of typhoid fever, 
dysentery, tuberculosis, diphtheria, and many other diseases. 
As many flies as possible should be destroyed each year. 

Houseflies are hatched from eggs which are deposited 
upon moist, rotting or fermenting matter. The heat gen- 
erated by the fermentation or decomposition assists the 
process of hatching. The female fly prefers to lay her eggs 
in moist horse manure, but where this is absent, any form of 
filth will serve her purpose. Privies and privy drains are 
common breeding places. The eggs deposited by tlie 
female fly total from 100 to loO at a time, being hatched 
in from eight to twenty-four hours in warm weather. Each 
egg produces a small white maggot. This maggot under- 
goes several changes, becoming a full grown fly within ten 
days. One nest or group of eggs produces at least fifty 



380 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

female flies which are ready to lay their eggs within ten daj^s 
from the time they emerge from their breeding place. This 
illustrates the enormous reproducing power of these insects. 

After the fly is hatched, it seeks places of fllth containing 
all kinds of germs. As the fly crawls over this filth, germs 
attach themselves to its legs and body by the thousands. 
The fly then enters the home, or other places, crawling 
over food on which it deposits many germs. Before eating, 
the fly moistens its food by expectorating upon it. This 
spittle also contains the germs of disease. This emphasizes 
the importance of eliminating the housefly. 

Mosquitoes. — Mosquitoes are also to be feared. They 
carry the germs of malaria, yellow fever, and other 
diseases. Mosquitoes breed in stagnant pools, swamps, 
sluggish river banks, marshes, and similar places where 
there is still water. Such places should be drained dry, or 
covered with a film of oil on the surface of the water, to 
prevent mosquitoes from breeding. Underbrush and weeds 
should be cut away, and the surroundings cleared. 

Illumination 

Insufficient light is a common contributing cause of 
accidents. Adequate and proper light conditions should 
prevail in the factory and workshop. If daylight is poor, 
artificial light should be employed. Daylight may be 
greatly increased by painting white the inside of work- 
rooms, stairways, and passageways. Windows should be 
frequently washed. Dirty windows shut out a large amount 
of useful light. Electricity, on account of its many advan- 
tages, is far preferable to any other form of artificial light. 

There are three distinct methods of illumination, namely, 
the direct, semi-direct, and indirect. Direct lighting is, 
of course, obtained from the transparent bulb, usually 
supplemented by a reflector. Semi-direct lighting is 
obtained by diffusing the rays through a frosted glass bowl 
surrounding the bulb. Indirect lighting is obtained by 
directing all the rays to the ceiling, whence they are dif- 



SAXITATIOX. TLLI'MIXATIOX. IIi: \'I'IX( ;. \'i:X'l'II, ATIOX 3S1 

fused about the room. Jii the hittcM- case*, the eeihng must 
be of a whitish tint to obtain satisfaetory resuUs. These 
different methods all ha\(^ tluMr advantajz;es foi- \ari()us 
purposes. ]^ir(M*t li^iitint>; is most commonly uscmI about 
machinery, espcH'ially at tlu^ point of ojxM-at ion. This 
should l^e sui)plemente(l by semi-direct or additional direct 
lighting. 

^Machinery and workplaces should b(» especially well 
illuminated, otherwise accidents are bound to occur. All 
dark stairway's, passageways, pits, elevators, elevator land- 
ings, footways, and runways should be k(^j)t well lighted at 
all times during working hours. 

The position and proper shading of lamps, for the use 
of workers, should receive special attention. Lamps are 
frequently so placed that they glare directh' into the eyes 
of operators. The reflected light from improperly shaded 
lamps often strains the eyes of workers. Lamps should be 
so placed and shaded that direct or reflected light will not 
be cast directly into the eyes. Lamps should not be 
placed too near, nor yet too far from the work. The 
intensity of the light should not be too great, yet sufficient 
Hght should be obtainable. Illumination should be an aid 
to the sight, instead of a hindrance and a strain. 

It is common knowledge that the number of work acci- 
dents increase during the winter months, also that the 
larger proportion occurs during the hours of diminished 
daylight. These accidents are increased at these times 
because of insufficient artificial light. Improper lighting 
conditions result in much spoiled work, poor (piality of 
work, loss of efficiency, and an enormous number of casual- 
ties. In addition, hundreds of thousands of eyes are ruined 
each year. The im})ortance of })ro\'iding proper illumination 
cannot be overestimated. 

Heating 
During cold weather, woi'krooms should be ))roperly 
heated bv means of steam or hot water. InsuflicicMit heat 



382 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



reduces the resisting power of workers to disease. On the 
other hand, a too high room temperature tends to decrease 
their efficiency. A temperature of about 66 degrees is a 
good medium. The temperature of the workrooms should 
remain constant during working hours. In the hot summer 
months, workrooms should be cooled by means of an 
effective ventilating system. The temperature of the 




Fig. 115 
Nickel plating tanks showing exhaust system for acid fumes and steam, 
also covers for tanks. 
Courtesy Eastman Kodak Company. 

workroom has a more important bearing upon both health 
and efficiency than is generally supposed. 



Ventilation 
^ Ventilation is another factor, too commonly overlooked, 
which has a direct relation to health and efficiency. A 
contaminated atmosphere spreads the germs of disease and 



SAXITATIOX, ILLU.MIXATIOX, HEATIXG, VEXTILATIOX 383 

stupefies the minds of the workers. Fresh air is necessary 
for good health and an active brain. Fresh air and sunlight 
tend to kill germs. Each workroom should be especially 
well ventilated. If natural ventilation is inadequate, arti- 
ficial ventilation should be emplo3'ed. 

All rooms in which dust is created should be artificially 
ventilated. Exhaust hoods should be placed over all 
machines which create dust; also, over vats and tanks which 
emit poisonous or irritating vapors and fumes, such as 
mercury, lacquer, varnish, gas, acid vapors, etc. (Fig. 115.) 
Hoods should be provided for melting pots, typesetting 
machines, ladles, furnaces, forges, etc. Air blasts should 
be installed at muffle furnaces, to blow cool fresh air into 
the faces of workmen, thus relieving the intense heat. 
Hoods should be used to exhaust sulphur fumes wherever 
generated. Dust arresters should be placed on woodworking 
machinery, wherever practicable; on emer}^ wheels, buffing 
wheels, rag cutters, flour mill machinery, tumbling barrels, 
cotton mill machinery, and all grinding and crushing 
machinery wherever possible. Exhaust fans of sufficient 
capacity should be installed. 



CHAPTER XXV 

WELFARE WORK 

Large corporations throughout the United States are 
now engaged in carrying on extensive welfare work among 
their employees. No expense is being spared in making 
the living and social conditions among the workers as 
pleasant and attractive as possible. Hospitals, visiting 
nurses, medical examination of employees, club houses, 
libraries, night schools, manual training schools, lunch 
rooms, gymnasiums, billiard rooms, bowling alleys, swim- 
ming pools, baseball fields, playgrounds for children, 
kindergartens, improved bungalows and dwellings, parks, 
voluntary relief plans, pension systems, and stock sub- 
scription plans comprise the important steps which are 
being taken to make desirable citizens of the vast army of 
workers and their families. This work is of great impor- 
tance from the sociological and educational points of view. 
The result is that the workers become more efficient and 
far better satisfied with their lot. In hours of leisure the 
workers find time and opportunity for education, recreation, 
and amusement. The results of this welfare work are 
directly reflected in the quality and quantity of the work 
performed, and in the loyalty and faithfulness of employees. 

Medical Examination of Employees. — One of the 
most important features of welfare work is the compulsory 
medical examination of employees. For this purpose, 
many companies engage one or more competent physicians 
to take charge of the work. In large companies a physician 
should devote his entire time to this work; in the case of 
smaller companies, he need devote only a part of his time. 
Every employee should be thoroughly examined by the 



WELFAP.i: WORK 385 

company physician at least once a year, and more often 
if necessary, for the ]nn*pose of discovering illness and 
phj'sical defects of any kind. The examination should not 
be conducted for the purpose of discharging workers in 
poor health, but for enlightening employees of any illness, 
in order that they may receive proj^er care and treatment 
free of charge. Such an examination enables the manage- 
ment to place employees at the kind of work for which 
they are fitted. Detailed records should be kept of all 
medical examinations, showing a complete analysis of the 
health and physical condition of every employee. 

The medical examination of employees has an important 
bearing on increasing the efficiency of any organization. 
Many employees are found engaged at work for which 
the}' are entirel}' unsuited. Some cannot afford to be 
treated by an outside physician. In case a worker is 
suffering from a contagious disease, it may spread through- 
out the working force. A systematic health supervision 
over employees would reveal these conditions at once. A 
medical examination serves to educate employees in the 
fundamental principles of health preservation and hygiene. 

Employees may be interested through health, hygiene, 
and sanitation talks which are illustrated with stereopticon 
slides. These lectures and talks attract large audiences, 
accomplishing much good. Talks and lectures should be 
supplemented with monthly pamphlets describing different 
diseases, symptoms, methods of prevention and cure. 
These should be distributed among all employees, being 
printed in as many languages as are spoken by the workers. 
By these methods of education, and by information im- 
parted by the physician during the medical examination, 
the employees gain a knowledge of the value of good health 
and how to acquire and retain it. 

Every employee who becomes ill while at work should 
be taken to the company hospital and examined. The 
employee should be required to secure a ''pass" from the 
company physician before leaving the factory. This sys- 



386 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



tern will discover a disease in its inception, thus preventing 
a contagious disease from spreading among the workers. 
An employee who shows any symptoms of a disease may 



o o 

BAUSCH & LOMB OPTICAL CO. DATE 

Physical Record of _ Age. Nationauty oept 

Children 
Widowed' 

Height ft in. Weight Weight 1 year ago Mailed 




General Appearance Skin 




Hkve you consulted a physician in 2 years? 




Reasons 


Result 




Operation 





Head 


Identification Marks 


Neck 


: 


-1 S':::: 


B.P. 




^^""^ I Left / 


Near ) 


Present "■" '«"■ 
Astigmadsmj ^,^, 


^- \ 




Nose 




Throat 




Tongue 


Teeth 




Chest Contracted Normal Expanded 


Heart Rate 




Lungs 




Cough 




Spitting of Blood 




Abdomen 




Appendicitus 




Digestion 


Ing. Region 





Rupture 


Upper Extremities 




Lower Extremities 




Feet Varicosities 


G. U. 




Spine 


Pain 




Vaccinated 




Any trouble or disease not mentioned ? 


Do you work elsewhere than at Bausch & Lomb Optical Co. Have you ever had an accident ? 


I understand the nature of the defects as found and certify my answers to be true. 
Examiner M. D. Signed. 



Fig. 116 
Physical record form for medical examination of employees, 
showing of what such an examination should consist. 

Courtesy Bausch & Lomb Optical Company. 



be reported by a foreman, or by any employee through the 
foreman. This given employee should then be requested 
to undergo a re-examination. All employees, both male 



WELFARE WORK 



387 



and female, should be examined once a year, as well as 
all new applicants for positions before being employed. 
All employees who are absent for one day, on account of 



O 



URINALYSIS 



Appearance 
Albumen 



S p. Gr. 



S"g«r 



Microscopical 











Fi(i. 117 
Rear of physical rorord form shown in Fig. IKi. All injuries 
should be clearly indicated on these charts. 

Courtesy Bau.sch i^r Lomb Optical Company. 

illness, should be required to secure a ''pass" from the 
company physician before returning to work. 

The form in Fig. 110 shows of what a medical examination 
and record should consist. On the back of this form are 



388 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

diagrams of the human body, human skeleton, and details 
of the bone structure of the hands and feet. (Fig. 117.) Any 
physical defect should be plainly marked at the correct 
place on these diagrams. The examination should be 
very thorough. This record covers all conditions affecting 
the health of employees which are likely to be encountered. 
This medical examination should be compulsory for all 



O 



Bausch & Lomb Opt. Co. 



Medical Dept. 



Regarding- 



Dept. No.- 



Occupation- 



We believe for the best interest of Employer and Employee, that it would be wise to change the work of 
■the above named, as we find possibility of Strangulated rupture developing as result of lifting, due to weakened 
condition of Abdominal "Walls. 



Signed- 
Disposition of Case 



-Medical Dept. 



-Transferred 
- Discharged 



Signed- 



-Supt's. Office 



KINDLY RETURN TO MEDICAL DEP'T. 



Fig. 118 
Notification form to superintendent in case of hernia or 
rupture, advising change of work. 
Courtesy Bausch & Lomb Optical Co?npany. 



employees. It does not require that a man be physically 
perfect, for unless he has some pronounced defect, such as 
tuberculosis of the lungs or a contagious disease, he is 
given work. The defects in the health condition should be 
pointed out to each employee. Advice and free treatment 
should be given. If working conditions are bad for a 
particular ailment, that employee should be transferred to 
another department where the work will better agree with 
his state of health. 



A\T5LFA1U: WORK 389 

The form in Fig. 118 is used as a notification to the 
superintendent of a case of hernia or rupture. The super- 
intendent should then transfer tlie (Muployee in question to 
work where the probability of his hfting heavy objects is 
shght. The workman should also be obliged to wear a truss 
to support the rupture unless he prefers to submit to an 
operation which will effect a permanent cure. In this con- 



OVIajor Surgical RccoiO 
Bausch & Lomb Opt. Co. Medical Dept. 



Description of Injury 



Permantnt Dimbility 



Fi(.. 110 
Major surgifal record form. 
Courtesy Bausch it Lomb Optical Company. 

nection, it may be stated that a surprising number of cases 
of hernia have been discovered in nearly every factory where 
a medical examination of employees is being carried on, 
and that in most cases the workmen were neglecting to 
wear trusses. In various ways a medical examination 
actually saves the lives of some employees. A form, similar 
to the one just described, is used for heart trouble, and 
another for all other diseases. 

The form in Fig. 119 is used as a major surgical record. 



390 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

The form in Fig. 120 is used as a minor surgical record. 
This is used for all minor injuries and illness, such as small 
cuts and bruises, sore throats, nausea, etc. These forms 
should all be filed in one folder under the name of 
the employee. A complete record will thus be maintained, 



o o 

Medical and Minor Surgical Record 
Bausch & Lomb Opt Ck>. Medical Dept. 

Name Dept Occupation 


Date 


Time 


Complaint 




rmlm 


T-M-- 












































































k 










_~i:^===^<=:^.^^r'';;— ^-^-^.^-^^.-^-v^ 



Fig. 120 
Medical and minor surgical record form. 
- Courtesy Bausch & Lomh Optical Company. 

showing the health condition of each employee, and how 
each case has been treated. 

The advantages of the compulsory medical examination 
of employees are summarized as follows: 

1. The early discovery of a disease increases the possibihty of cm-e. 

2. The period of illness is shortened, 

3. The chances of contagion are reduced. 

4. The hygienic standards are raised. 

5. The efficiency of the organization is increased. 

6. The management is enabled to place employees at the kind of work 
for which they are fitted. 

7. Illness and physical defects are pointed out to employees. 

8. Employees receive advice and free treatment of illness. 

9. Employees are educated in health, hygiene, and sanitation. 

10. The healthy workers receive protection from those that are diseased. 

Company Hospitals. — Every company of large size 
should maintain a hospital in the factory. It should be 
located in a light, sunny part of the plant where plenty of 
fresh air is obtainable. (Fig. 121.) The walls and floors 



WI'LFAIM-: WORK 



391 



should be of white tile or siniihir material. All furniture 
should be enameled white. The hospital should contain 
an instrument cabinet, operating table, one or more beds, 
bed linen, medical cabinet, stretcher, wash basins, towels, 
sterilizing basins, electric heaters, sterilizers, a water closet, 
splints, tourniquets, sterilized bandages and gauzes, stools, 
chairs, etc. The room should be especially well lighted 




Fk;. 121 
Oporatinp; room at hosi)ital of liausch c^ Lomb Oi)tif'al Compaii}-. 

and ventilated, and properly heated. Operating lamps, 
eye-testing apparatus, scales, electric fans and other useful 
accessories should be provided. A trained nurse should 
be employed to attend to all the minor injuries and illness, 
and to assist the physician in serious cases. 

Visiting Nurses. — Many large companies employ visit- 
ing nurses who make periodical calls at the homes of 
employees for the purpose of treating the sick and instruct- 
ing in all matters pertaining to health, hygiene, and sani- 



392 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



tation. They do much toward educating famihes in 
methods of healthful living. The district nurse is a most 
welcome visitor in the homes of the sick. She is especially 
valuable in mining camps and other isolated communities. 

Voluntary Accident Relief Plans. — Some of the larger 
corporations and companies have established voluntary 




Fig. 122 

Lunch room for employees. 

Courtesy Commonwealth Steel Company. 



compensation systems for employees who may become 
incapacitated, either temporarily or permanently, by sus- 
taining work accidents. Compensation is also provided for 
dependents of workmen who may be killed while in the 
employ of the company. Workmen's compensation laws 
are now in effect in twenty-nine states, with the probability 
that all other states will adopt similar laws in the near 
future. These laws, though open to much improvement, 



w i:i.iAKi; woiJK 



31)3 



have (lone a «2;i-(\it (h^al to relicxc the siirtrrin^ of those who 
are reiukMXMl physicallN' and financially li(>l|)l(\ss by woi'k 
aeeidents, and tor dei)end(Mits ol" those who are killed. 
\\'hercver these laws an* in et'teet, inchistrial workers are, 
in a measure, financially compensated for injuries received 
during the course of their woik. Tlu^se hiws reheve 
empk)yers of the moral duty of making- further provision 
for the welfare of employees in this particular connection. 




Fic;. 123 

Rcadinp: room and library at the Palniorton Xoiglihorhood House. 

Coinicsij Xcir Jersey Zinc Company. 

There are, however, some companies that supplement the 
financial aid rendered by the operation of workmen's 
compensation laws. If ])i-()])(M-ly i-(^gulat(Ml, this assistance 
is highly conimcndable. 

Pension Funds. — Pension fimds ha\(^ Ixmmi established 
by a number of companies, affording relief foi* workers 
in their old age. Such a plan increases the loyalty of the 
working force, and enables companies to retain experienced 
men in their service. The following principal features of 



394 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

the pension system of the United States Steel Corporation 
should prove of value to other companies contemplating the 
establishment of a pension fund: 

The United States Steel and Carnegie Pension Fund was established in the 
year 1910, by the joint action of the United States Steel Corporation and Mr. 
Andrew Carnegie. Its purpose is the payment to employees of old age pensions 
from the income of the fund. For this purpose, the United States Steel Corpora- 
tion provided S8,000,000 which, with the Carnegie ReHef Fund of $4,000,000 
created by Andrew Carnegie on March 12, 1901, makes a joint fund of 
$12,000,000. This fund is administered by a board of twelve trustees through 
a manager appointed by the board. 

Its principal features are: 

(a) Compulsory retirement for men at seventj^ years of age and for women 
at sixty years of age, after twenty years' service. 

(6) Retirement at request of the employee or his employing officer after 
the age of sixty for men, and fifty for women, after twenty years of serx-ice. 

(c) Retirement by reason of permanent total incapacity, after fifteen years 
of service. 

(d) Pension Basis — For each year of service, 1 per cent of the average 
monthly earnings for the last ten years of service. 

(e) Credit for service rendered to any of the plants of the subsidiary com- 
panies of the United States Steel Corporation or to the predecessors of such 
companies. 

(/) Minimum pension, $12.00 per month; maximum pension, $100.00 
per month. . 

Stock Subscription Plans. — In conjunction with the 
establishment of pension funds, some companies have 
formed stock subscription plans, under which shares of 
stock are offered to all employees upon easy and especially 
favorable terms, which involve benefits beyond those to the 
ordinary stockholders. Such a plan, if properly admin- 
istered, has many apparent advantages. The stock sub- 
scription plan of the United States Steel Corporation is 
as follows: 

Number of shares which can be subscribed for depends upon the wages of 
the employee, but it is relatively greater for the lower-paid men. The price of 
the stock is the market price, or usually a little less. Payments: Minimum, 
$2.00 to $3.00 per share per month for preferred, varying each year in accord- 
ance with the price of stock; $1.25 to $1.50 per share per month for common. 
Maximum that can be paid is 25 per cent of monthly earnings. A premium of 
$5.00 for preferred and $3.50 for common per annum for five years is paid on 



WELFAin: WoiUv 395 

each share of stock i)ur<liasc<l hy employees under lliis ])lan. Non-paid-up 
subscriptions may l)c canceled and the money paid in is refunded to tiie cm- 
jiloyee with o per cent interest. Premiums are not paid to employees who cancel 
their sul)scrii)ti()ns, sell their stock, or leave the employ of the Company, and the 
forfeited or unpaid premiums are kept in a fund and divided pro rata amonp the 
remaining shareholders under this j)lan at the end of the five-year period. 

If death occurs to an employee who haa suhscrihed for stock and made 
payments under this plan, his estate receives the unpaid premiimis for the full 
five-year period and a jiro rata share of the premiums undivided at the time of 
death. 

On I)eceml)er 31, 1012, more than ;i2,'24S emj)l()yees wer(> stockholders: 
under this plan. Their afj^repate holdinjis amounted to more than 12.5,848 shares 
of stock. It is imp()ssii)le to a.scertain how many emi)loyees, in addition to those 
y(>t receiving; the special benefits that contimie for five years, hold stock upon 
which the.se .s])ecial benefits have ceased to be paid, but it is believed that their 
numbers would greatly increase the figures here given. 

Sociological. — The sociolo(2;ical work among large 
corporal ioii.s is constantly receiving more attention. The 
nature and extent of what this work should embody is 
very well illustrated in the following weekly program of 
the New Jersey Zinc Company, which is carried on at one 
of its large mines: 



WEEKLY PROGRAM — PALMERTOX NEIGHBORHOOD HOUSE 

Monthly 
A.M. P.M. 

Kindergarten, 9 to 12. \'i.-iting Nurses' Calls, 1 to .5. 

Penny Provident Bank, to 11. Library Hours, 1 to .5. 

Visiting Nur.ses' Hours, 9 to 12. Boy.s' Chair Caning, 4 to .5.30. 

Camp Fire Circle, 4 to .") 30. 
(Buchra-Buchra) 

Ciirls' Cooking, 4 to .5.30. 

Girls' Gymna-sium, 4 to .5.30. 

Penny Provident, 4 to .5. 

Foreign Girls' Cooking, 8 to 9.30. 

Dancing Class — Boys, 7.30 to 9. 

Basket Ball Practice* 7.30 to 9. 

Library Hours, 7 to 10. 

Bowling Alleys. 7 to 10. 

Hungarian Band Practice, 7. .30 to 9.30. 



396 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



A.M. 

Girls' Cooking, 8 to 9.30. 
Kindergarten, 9 to 12. 
Penny Provident, 10 to 11. 
Visiting Nurses' Calls, 9 to 12. 



Tuesday 



P.M. 



Visiting Nurses' Calls, 1 to 5. 
Library Hours, 1 to 5. 
Camp Fire Circle, 4 to 5. (Minnehaha) 
Girls' Cooking, 4 to 5.30. 
Boys' Gymnasium, 4 to 5.30. 
Neighborhood Visiting, 2 to 4. 
Foreigners' English, 7.30 to 9. 
Basket Ball Practice, 7.30 to 9.30. 
Camp Fire Circle, 7.30 to 9. 

(Aquashicola) 
Library Hours, 7 to 10. 
Bowhng Alleys, 7 to 10. 
Palmerton Band Practice, 7.30 to 9.30. 



A.M. 

Girls' Cooking, 8 to 9.30. 
Girls' Cooking, 11 to 12.15. 
Home Nursing, 11 to 12.15. 
Kindergarten, 9 to 12. 
Penny Provident, 10 to 11. 
Visiting Nurses' Calls, 9 to 11. 



Wednesday 

P.M. 
Visiting Nurses' Calls, 1 to 5. 
Library Hours, 1 to 5. 
Neighborhood Visiting, 2 to 4. 
Camp Fire Circle, 4 to 5.30. 

(Wenonah) 
Camp Fire Cooking Class, 

(1st Wed.), 8 to 9.30. 
Women's Fancy Cookery, 

(2nd Wed.), 8 to 9.30. 
Camp Fire Cooking Class, 

(3rd Wed.), 8 to 9.30. 
Foreign Mothers' Club Cooking, 

(4th Wed.), 8 to 9.30. 
Kindergarten Mothers' Club, 8 to 9.30. 
Junior Co-operative Squad Meetings, 

7.30 to 9. 
Library Hours, 7 to 10. 
Bowhng Alleys, 4 to 5, 7 to 10. 
Hungarian Band Practice, 

7.30 to 9.30. 



A.M. 
Boys' Cooking Class, 11 to 12.15. 
Boys' Carpentry Class, 11 to 12. 
Kindergarten, 9 to 12. 
Penny Provident, 10 to 11. 
Visiting Nurses' Calls, 9 to 12. 



Thursday 



P.M. 

Visiting Nurses' Calls, 1 to 5. 

Library Hours, 1 to 5. 

Girls' Cooking Class, 4 to 5.30. 

Neighborhood Visiting, 2 to 4. 

Foreigners' English, 7.30 to 9. 

Boys' Gymnasium, 7.30 to 9. 

Camp Fire Circle, 8 to 9.30. (Juanita) 

Library Hours, 7 to 10. 

Bowhng Alleys, 4 to 5, 7 to 10. 

Palmerton Band Practice, 7.30 to 9.30. 



wi'.i.i'Ain: woiMv 397 



A.M. P.M'. 

Kiiidcrfiartcii, \) to 12. \'isiiin^ Nurses' ('alls, 1 to .3. 

P(>nny I'rovuiiMit, 10 to 11. Library Hours, 1 too. 

\'isitiiig Nurs(>s' Calls, 9 to 12. Dancing, T.'M) to 9. 

Dressmaking, S to 9.30. 
Junior Co-oporativc CarpcntrN' Clas.s, 

7 to 9. 
Lii)rary Hours, 7 to 10. 
Howling .Mlcys, 2 to 5, 7 to 10. 

Saiurday 
A.M. V.M. 

Library Hours, 9 to 12. Visiting Nurses' Calls, 1 to 5. 

Visiting Nurses' Calls, 9 to 12. Library Hours, 1 to ."). 

Sewing School, 2.30 to .3.30. 
Penny Provident, 2.30 to 3.30. 
Library Hours, 7 to 10.30. 
liowling Alleys, 2 to 5, 7 to 10.30. 
Open Hou.se Dance, 7 to 10.30. 
Fr(>e Paths (Daily) 5.30 a.m. to 9 p.m. 

S mid '11/ 
Reading Room 9 .\.m. to 9 p.m. 
Foreign Lodge Meetings, 2 to 4 and 7 to 9 p.m. 

Sj)cci(d Mid Lugs 
Citizens' Co-operative Association — Third Tuesday each month, S p.m. 
Palmerton Hospital Auxiliary — First Tuesday each month, 2.30 p.m. 

Welfare work should be undertaken for two reasons; 
for the uplift of humanity, and as a business proposition. 
This work will not show actual cash returns in definite 
figures, l)ut it will be reflected in increased efficiency, better 
health of workmen, increased loyalty to employer, and 
better citizenship. Welfare work is not intended to offset 
fair wages. It is intended to give those woi'kors and their 
families education, recreation, and healthful and pleasant 
surroundings that cannot afford to obtain these things 
from outside sources. It is intended to give workmen and 
their families something more than the bare necessities of 
life. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

OCCUPATIONAL DISEASES 

For complete information upon this subject, reference 
should be made to some of the modern books compiled by 
members of the medical profession. This subject is one 
that is now receiving considerable attention by physicians, 
employers, and welfare organizations. Its scope is too far 
reaching to be adequately covered in a book of this charac- 
ter. Some of the more important factors bearing upon 
the prevention of occupational diseases will, however, be 
briefly outlined. 

Dr. W. G. Thompson of Cornell University has classified 
occupational diseases, injuries, harmful conditions and 
substances as follows: 

Harmful Substances: 

1. Metallic poisons 

2. Toxic gases, vapors, and fumes 

3. Toxic fluids (acids, alkalies, dyes, etc.) 

4. Irritant dusts and fibers 

(a) Insoluble inorganic dusts 

(b) Soluble inorganic dusts 

(c) Organic dusts and fibers 

5. Organic germs (anthrax, glanders, etc.) 

6. Miscellaneous irritants 
Harmful Conditions of Environment: 

1. Air compression and rarefaction 

2. Excessive humidity 

3. Extreme heat and cold 

4. Excessive light (electric. X-ray, etc.) 
Occupational Injuries (Medical) : 

1. Injuries to nerves, muscles, and bones (strain, fatigue, cramps, faulty 

positions, " occupational neuroses," blows, vibrations, pressure, etc.) 

2. Injuries to the eyes 

3. Injuries to the ears 

4. Injuries to the nose and throat 

5. Injuries to the skin 



OCCrPA'l'lOXAL 1)1S1:ASES 3!)9 

Occupational Diseases of the — 

1. Blood 

2. Circulatory sy.st(>in 

3. H('si)iratory system 

4. Nervous system 
."). Digestive system 
0. Muscular system 

7. Cutaneous system 

8. Urinary system 

9. Special sense orj^ans 

There is such a variety of conditions enterin^z; into the 
causation of occupational diseases that it is indeed a great 
problem to successfully reduce these diseases to a niinimuni. 

As a protection against poisons, Dr. Fischer of Berlin 
has comi)il(Ml the following measures: 

1. Proj-XTly adapted huiidinjis, thick walls of .-reparation of danf^crous 
rooms, good light ing, clean \vorkshoi)s, efTecti\'e ventilation. 

2. Api)aratus adapted to its special purpose; wherever possible, closing 
tight in every i)art. 

3. Appliances for accomplisliing the arrest of gases and dust at their origin, 
their removal (by exhaust fans), rendering them innocuous, or collecting them, 
thus preventing them from entering the nose and mouth. 

4. So far as possible, avoidance of direct contact with poisonous materials 
or substances, in working with, transjwrting, and packing them. 

~i. The displacement of i)articularly dangerous labor methods and niat(>rials 
by the introduction of less dangerous labor })i-ocesses and materials, as well as 
by the employment of chemically pure materials. 

6. Instruction of workers, just entering upon an occupation, concerning 
the properties of the poisonous sul)stances extracted, manufactured, used, or 
otherwise evolved; and, wherever possible, cautionary leaflets should be placed 
in the hands of workers, with the repetition of this instruction at frequent 
intervals. 

7. Posting precautionary regulations and warning signs and placards, contain- 
ing admonitions for the exercise of special caution, and enjoining the observance 
of these mejisures for insuring safety. 

8. Constant supervision of all dangerous employments ])y expert. responsiJjle 
persons. 

9. Employment of ai)i)ro|)i-iate means for personal jjrotection, as workclothes, 
caps, gloves, eye protectors, and, as necessary adjuncts, mouth and nose shields, 
respiratory masks, etc. 

10. Practice of bodily cleanliness by the use of wa.sh, bath, and dressing 
rooms, the use of special rooms for eating, separate wardrobes for work and 
street clothes, and frequent, non-hazardous cleansing of the clothing. 

11. Immediate report of .symptoms of indi.<:position: attention to wounds 
of the skin, caused by handling corrosive materials; the (juick employment of 



400 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

an exceptional antidote, giving promise of success, at the very first symptoms of 
poisoning, with the simultaneous summoning of a physician. 

12. The installation of a healthy working force, capable of withstanding 
exposure to the poison; temporary or permanent exclusion of sick workers from 
dangerous departments of the industry; medical examination of the workers 
at suitable intervals; change of work in occupations giving rise to chronic 
poisoning. 

13. The utmost possible reduction in the hours of labor in dangerous 
occupations. 

A thorough medical examination of all applicants for 
positions is absolutely essential. This is the only method 
by means of which those workers who are physically unfit 
for these occupations can be successfully and immediately 
eliminated. It is important to select only those workers 
who have a relatively high physical resistance to industrial 
poisons. It is necessary to have frequent medical examina- 
tions of the workers, short working hours, and periodical 
changes of work to out-of-door occupations. This will 
afford an opportunity for employees to preserve their 
health and disease-resisting power, allowing the system to 
expel the poisons which it has gradually absorbed. If these 
precautions are not observed, much disease, enforced idle- 
ness, and premature death will result. Employers should 
strictly enforce all necessary rules and use all possible 
measures to preserve the health of the workers. 

Employees should receive explicit instructions regarding 
the dangers of their work, the effects of poisoning, the 
precautions to be observed, and the proper first aid treat- 
ment in case of poisoning. Prominent placards, containing 
rules, instructions, and precautions, should be conspicuously 
posted in each workroom. Employees should be frequently 
cautioned by means of printed circulars which should be 
periodically distributed. 

Helmets, costumes, caps, oxygen apparatus, respirators, 
eye protectors, gloves, and other safety devices should be 
employed wherever their use will afford the desired pro- 
tection. Change houses, containing shower baths and wash 
basins, should be provided. Each worker should be assigned 



OCCUPATIOXAL DISEASES 



401 



an in(li\-i(lual locked- and wash basin, l-^niployees should 
be reciuircd to change their (•h)thing; before entering, and 
immediately after lea\ing the workroom. They should 
be provided with suitable sanitary work costumes. These 
should be made of sonu^ washabk^ niat(M-ial, and should be 




Fig. 124 

Workman's protective uniform for ammonia tanks. 

Courtesy Eastman Kodak Co/n/rinij. 



perfectly plain, containing no pockets or folds. Direct 
contact with poisonous substances should be avoided as 
far as possible. Employees should be required to wash and 
bathe before leaving the factory. Every efYort should be 
employed to encourage cleanliness among the workers. 

Employees should be forbidden to eat, drink, chew or 
smoke in rooms where the atmosphere is contaminated with 



402 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

poisonous gases, vapors or dust. An abundance of well 
chosen food, prescribed by a physician, is essential in 
maintaining the health of the workers. They should be 
encouraged to engage in outdoor athletic recreation. Intox- 
icating liquor renders the human system peculiarly sus- 
ceptible to industrial poisons; therefore, employees should 
be urged to abstain from its use. Those who indulge in 
intoxicants to any extent should not be employed. 

Special attention should be given to ventilation and the 
destruction of poisonous dusts, gases, and vapors. This 
is very important. When conducted from the workroom, 
these poisonous elements should be chemically or physically 
purified, altered or destroyed before leaving the factory. 
Wet methods, to prevent dust formation, should be used 
wherever practicable. Condensation, absorption, solution, 
precipitation, admixing, and other chemical and physical 
treatments may be advantageously used, in many instances, 
in the destruction of poisons. By-products are often thus 
obtained which form a source of profit. 

Employers should realize the importance of providing 
and maintaining safe and sanitary conditions; otherwise, 
the working force will be demolished through illness and 
disease, making it necessary to constantly add new inex- 
perienced workers to the organization. This would entail 
a large financial loss to the company through inefficiency 
and waste, as well as much misery among workers and their 
families by enforced unemployment. 



CHAPTER XXVII 

FIRST AID TO THE INJURED 

First aid treat iiiont to the injured, if correctly admin- 
istered, does much toward saving Hves and minimizing 
suffering. Few reahze how great a service a workman, 
educated and trained in first aid methods, can render to an 
injured fellow-workman. He may save his life, and at 
least he will do a great deal toward making possible a quick 
recovery. The only way in which workmen can receive 
adec^uate first aid instruction and practice is through the 
organization of a first aid staff in each factory. Classes of 
workmen from each department, including foremen, should 
be given this instruction by a physician. A sufficient 
number of men should be so trained for this work that 
there will always be several men in each department who 
have a good knowledge of first aid methods. These classes 
should meet periodically, every w^eek or so, until they have 
received thorough instruction and training. 

It is also advisable to instruct all employees, through 
illustrated talks, lectures, and pamphlets, in the fund- 
amental principles of first aid, health, sanitation, and 
hygiene. It is surprising how ignorant is a large majority 
of w^orkmen concerning these subjects. A great deal can be 
accomplished toward educating employees by making the 
lectures interesting. These lectures should be held at 
least once a month. All employees should be encouraged to 
attend. Lectures may bo followed by some kind of an 
entertainment, which will tend to arouse more than a com- 
mon interest among the workers. 

First Aid Organization. — The purpose of a first aid org- 
anization should be to instruct and train eni])loyees to assist 



404 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

those who may be injured or rendered helpless, to promote 
good fellowship among its members and the other workmen, 
and to enlist individual and public interest in the social 
betterment and public health of all. 

The officers should consist of a chairman, secretary, 
treasurer, and medical supervisor. Foremen should be 
appointed as captains of squads, consisting of six employees, 
including a patient. These squads should be instructed 
and drilled every week in first aid methods. The drills 
and instructions should cover all possible general classes of 
injuries. 

First aid treatment should always be supplemented by 
examination and treatment by a physician. This is essen- 
tial, even though the injury seems trivial. Often much 
harm is done by well intended, but unskilled treatment by 
foremen or fellow-workmen, who have not an adequate 
knowledge of first aid methods. 

General Instructions. — General instructions, briefly 
describing what to do in an emergency, should be con- 
spicuously placed upon bulletin boards in each room. The 
Norton Company uses the following first aid instructions: 

FIRST AID 

IN CASES OF 
ILLNESS OR ACCIDENT 



INSTRUCTIONS 



First Duties: 

1. Notify Doctor. (Names, addresses and telephone numbers of at least two 

doctors.) 

2. Telephone for ambulance if necessary. (Telephone number.) 

3. Prepare bowl of hot water, soap, scrubbing brush, and gauze for cases of 

cuts and bruises. 

4. Prepare splints in cases of severe injuries. 

5. When patient arrives, proceed at once to follow directions given by doctor 

for that type of injury. 
For Burns and Scalds: 

1. Remove all clothing from injured part. 

2. Immerse extremity in large pail or foot tub containing sat. sol. bicarbonate 

of soda. 



FIRST All) TO Till: ix.n iii:i) 405 

3. Parts which cannot he iinincrscd slioiikl he covered witli soft cotton cloth 

soaked in carron oil. 

4. Slight burns should he i)ow(len>d with C()nij)ound stearato of zinc jxjwder. 

5. If much shock, ^ive teaspoonful of aromatic spts. of anmionia in one- 

half Klass of water; or, one tahlespoonful of lirandy in one-half fi;lass of 
water. 
G. If pain is unl)earal)le n'wr ,\ f^rain of niorpiiin(>. 

For Fainting and Sudden Sickness: 

1. Ciet i)atient on hack with iu^ul lowci- than heels. 

2. Give one teaspoonful of aromatic spts. of ammonia in one-half glass 

of water. 

3. Put towel, soaked in cold water, to head. 

For Fractures and Dislocations: 

1. Remove clothes about injuicd part by cuttiiifi;. 

2. Put injured part at rest on splint, after applyinji; a dressinj^of ^auze soaked 

(sopping wet) in a mixture of lead and opium. 

3. Let patient lie down. 

4. If pain is very severe, give \ grain of morphine. 

For Major Injuries (Fractures with laceration, etc.): 

1. Remove clothes around injured i)art by cutting. 

2. Wrap all exposed parts, txccpl injur ij, in blanket. 

3. Put patient on his hack. 

4. Cover with Ijlankct. 

5. Wash around wound thoroughly with soaj) and water, as in minor injuri(>s. 

6. Put on large i)ad of gauze soaked in solution of bichloride of mercury 

(l-KJOO). 

7. If patient is pale or white, give one teaspoonful of aromatic si)ts. of 

ammonia in one-half ghuss of water. 

8. If nuich pain, give \ grain o{ morjjhine. 

For Minor Injuries i( "rushing or (ait ting injuries involving fingers, hand, foot 
or small areas i : 

1. Clean thoroughly by washing j)art in hot water with green soap, using 

scrubbing brush for area around wound, and gauze for the wound itself. 

Do THI.S YWE MINUTES BY WATCH. ^ 

2. Wash off in turpentine or benzine. (Not im.mersixg.) 

3. Soak in bichloride of mercury (1-1000) for thhke minites nv wwtch 

or until doctor arrives. If doctor is not recjuired, apply sterile gauz(>, 
bandage and finger splint . 

Do NOT TRY TO STOP FLOW OF HLfJOD UNLESS VERY SEVERE; THE HOT 
BICHLOKIDE SO.\K .\XI) H.\ND.\(;E WILL .-^TOI' IT. 



* Attention should be called to the fact that it is often dangerous to wa.sh 
a wound, except when done by a physician, as germs may be washed further 
into the wound and remain there. A compress soaked in tincture of iodine is 
recommended, without washing, provided the wound can be treated by a 

})h\'sician within a sliort time. 



406 



PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 



Equipment. — In plants of any size the management 
should provide a suitable hospital room, located in a light, 
sunny part of the factory where plenty of fresh air may be 
obtained. This hospital room should be equipped as 




Fig. 125 

First aid kit. 

Courtesy Johnson & Johnson 



described under ^^ Hospital" in the chapter on ^^ Welfare 
Work." 

The following equipment, exclusive of the hospital sup- 
plies, is needed in any medium^ size factory. This equip- 
ment should, of course, be increased according to the size 
of the plant: 

Several First Aid Cabinets containing: 
12 triangular bandages 
12 medium size safety pins 
6 packages of gauze (both plain and picric) 
6 light wood splints — 3| inches wide and 18 inches long 
12 roller bandages — assorted sizes 
2 tourniquets 

2 rolls of cotton — plain and absorbent 
Several bottles containing tincture of iodine, aromatic spts. of ammonia, 

boracic acid, etc.: 
2 tubes of burn ointment 
also : 

1 standard stretcher (U. S. Army regulation) 



injsT AID TO Till-; i.\.ui;i:i) 407 

2 l)lank(«is 

() wooden splints for [r'^s and hack fractures 

2 sots of first aid cliarts 

The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company uses a no\ol 
type of First Aid case which has the followinfi; achantages: 

1. It is easily portable, IxMny; made of leather, 12 inches in height, 17 J 
inches long, and 8 inches in bn^adth. having; a handle and a catcli and lock like 
a suitcase. 

2. The solutions most largely employiMl, nam(>ly, carron oil, boracic acid, 
and lead and opium solution, are contained in thermos botth^s, so tiiat they are 
unaffected by temjierature no matter wh(M-(> the case is used. 

3. All dressings are jnit up in individual packages, thereby practically 
eliminating the chances of using an infected dressing. 

4. The numl)er of articles which a layman is required to use is reduc(ul 
to a minimum. 

o. A flap, sej)arating tlu^ two halves of the case, contains on one side a list 
of the articles therein, and on the other side a set of instructions with respect 
to the use of the case in the treatment of the classes of injuries in which it will 
more commonly be employed. 

6. The case contains a sealed compartment to be opened only when a })hysi- 
eian is called to give emergency treatment. This compartment contains a pocket 
kit of surgical instruments, a hypodermic syringe and solution of cocaine, catgut, 
needles for closing wounds, ]:)laster of Paris bandage, and splints. 

One person should be held responsible for the proper 
upkeep of the first aid equipment. It should never be 
allowed to become depleted in any way. If the factory be 
a large one, this first aid equipment should be located at 
several convenient points. First aid equipment should also 
be distributed at different points about a mine. Every 
engineering office on construction work and every quarry 
should be similarly equipped. The addresses and telephone 
numbers of several physicians should be conspicuously 
printed on placards attached to telephones in each room, 
so that a physician can be quickly summoned in an 
emergency. 

Eye Injuries. — The human eye is the most valuable 
sense organ of the body. It is, however, the most fre- 
quently neglected and unprotected. If the eyes are injiu-ed 
by molten metal, strong acids and alkalies, or chemicals, 
there is little or no relief. T\w i-esult is usuallv total 



408 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

blindness. No less serious accidents happen from flying 
chips of steel, emery and other foreign bodies. It is, there- 
fore, of the utmost importance that the eyes be protected 
with suitable goggles. Each workman should be supplied 
with an individual pair. Otherwise, if goggles are promis- 
cuously interchanged among workmen, infection from the 
eyes of one workman may be spread, through the medium 
of the goggles, to the eyes of many other employees. 

When a workman attempts to remove a foreign body 
from a fellow-workman's eye, he usually employs a tooth- 
pick, pin, match, jackknife, or some other dangerous and 
unsanitary instrument. The usual result is that the eye 
becomes infected. Again, if foreign bodies are not skil- 
fully removed by a physician or an oculist, the delicate 
surface of the eye may be torn or abraded. This will 
cause inflammation and ulceration, eventually resulting in a 
complete loss of vision. Delay is dangerous, and may 
result in a condition which the physician or the oculist 
will be unable to cure. The finest instruments and the 
best of light are necessary to remove fine particles of steel, 
emery and similar substances, without leaving a scar. If 
goggles are not worn in grinding or chipping, pieces con- 
tinually become lodged in the eyes. They may thus in 
time become so scarred, if they do not earlier become 
infected, that the vision will be ultimately lost. 

The eyes may be injured by flying chips of stone, brick, 
and steel; by chips and dust from emery wheels and other 
grinding, buffing and polishing wheels; by spattered molten 
metal, ammonia and other chemicals; by dust, gas and 
powder explosions, by electrical flashes, by exposure to the 
electrical arc used in welding, by continued exposure of the 
eyes to air laden with dust and fumes, and by other objects 
forcibly entering the eyes. 

Flashed Eyes. — Electrical flashes, though of momen- 
tary duration, develop almost instantaneously a great ' 
amount of heat. This produces painful burns on the unpro- 
tected eyes. Also, continued exposure to the rays of the 



FiKST AID TO riii: ix.jrHj:D 409 

electric arc iisrd in w(^l(lin<>; will causes similar burns, (^\-(mi 
though the victim is not luvir (Mi()u«2;h to feel any intensity 
of heat. Such burns do not usually become apparent until 
several hours after the exposure. The serious effect of 
flashed eyes is caused by the ultra-violet rays which are 
present in the electric arc. To properly protect the eyes, 
operators should wear helmets with openings for the vision 
filled with red and blue glass. 

Sywploms. — Eyes which have ])een exposed to electrical 
flashes become very red. Intense pain manifests itself. 
There is an aversion to light, and a copious secretion of 
tears. Often the eyebrows and eyelashes are singed, the 
eyes being filled with charred particles of hair and skin 
debris. In the more severe cases, a zone of red appears 
about the cornea. If the heat is sufficient, the su perficial 
layers of the cornea are coagulated. 

Treatment. — the eyes should be treated only by a 

PHYSICIAN, NURSE, OR AN OCULIST. 

Asphyxiation or Suffocation. — (See Appendix.) 

Resuscitation by Artificial Respiration. — (See xVppendix.) 

Electric Shock. — Shocks from electricity are very com- 
mon, especially in mines and on line work. They frequently 
occur in and about manufacturing plants, and even in the 
household. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are: sudden loss of con- 
sciousness; absence of respiration; or, if present, very 
hght and irregular, and may not l^e noticeable; very weak 
pulse; and body burns at the point of contact. 

Breaking the Circuit. — (See Appendix.) 

Treatment. — Cases of asphyxia from electric shock 
should be treated as described under ''Resuscitation by 
Artificial Respiration." Electrical burns should be treated 
as described under ''Burns." 

Infection. — Infection is responsible for a great amount 
of grief and suffering. It gives rise to much sickness, 
makes many amputations necessary, and is the cause of a 
great many deaths. 



410 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Infection is always caused by virulent germs or bacteria. 
The germs are always lurking upon nearly all objects, in 
the ground, on the body, in water and impure air. They 
thrive in dark, moist places. Sunlight and dryness tend 
to kill them. When they are confined in a small place, 
their own poison, which they give off, kills them. They 
may also be starved from a lack of proper food. There 
are countless varieties of germs, each requiring a special 
food, warmth, and a proper breeding place. 

These microscopic organisms, some being so small that 
they cannot even be detected with the highest power 
microscope, multiply very rapidly. They breed, on the 
average, every half hour. In breeding, one of these minute 
organisms will split itself to form two organisms, and so 
on. This process is repeated over and over again. In 
the course of one day, these organisms may produce mil- 
lions of descendants. It may be readily seen that, at this 
rate of multiplication, there is need of quickly and positively 
destroying these harmful organisms at the start. As they 
grow, they evolve poisonous substances called toxins. 
These toxins may simply act as irritants, or they may be 
virulent enough to destroy all the tissues of the body with 
which they come in contact. In many cases, these bacteria 
are spread broadcast through the body by means of the 
blood, after having gained entrance through a cut, wound, 
abrasion, or by some other means. They thus poison every 
part of the body which they touch, causing blood poisoning, 
or other diseases. Bacteria also gain entrance to the body 
through the respiratory and digestive systems. They pro- 
duce headache and fever. They often cause pus to form 
in the wound or its vicinity, which prevents the wound from 
healing. There is a great variety of germs, which cause 
blood poisoning, one of which causes lockjaw. 

Symptoms. — The first sign of infection is pain or irri- 
tation, heat, redness of the skin, and swelling. The forma- 
tion of pus is attended with agony, increased temperature, 
and insomnia due to the pain. 



FIRST AID TO I'lli: IXJlHi:!) 411 

Treatment. — If the wound thus becomes infected, it 
should receive special attention at once. Every cut, abra- 
sion, bruise, wound, and even scratclies, should immediately 
be washed and cleansed, treated with a disinfectant, and 
bound up to keep out all dirt. ^ This should l)e done in 
all cases, no matter how slight the abkasion may be. 
A tiny pin scratch may easily develop into a dangerous case 
of blood poisoning, which may eventually result in death. 
Infection is almost always the result of neglecting to thor- 
oughly cleanse and disinfect the wound, protecting it with 
a light bandage to keep out dust, containing more bacteria, 
or other unclean things from coming in contact with it. 

A disinfectant or germicide is an agent that is fatal to 
germs and to their spores and eggs. The process of destruc- 
tion of the germs in clothing, excreta, wounds, objects, air, 
and water is known as disinfection. The disinfection of 
dressings and surgical instruments is called sterilization. 

There are hundreds of thousands of cases of blood 
poisoning in this country each year. Many of these cases 
could have been easily avoided by immediate and proper 
attention to all cuts, wounds, and bruises. The matter of 
immediately cleansing, disinfecting and bandaging cuts, 
wounds, and bruises, although it may seem trifling at the 
time, is an extremely important detail. 

Hemorrhage. — Hemorrhage means loss of blood. It 
is usually caused by an injury which ruptures blood vessels, 
or by a diseased condition of blood vessels. The danger of 
hemorrhage depends upon the amount of blood lost, and 
the raj^idity with which it escapes. The loss of one-third 
of the blood in the body is usually fatal. 

There are three kinds of hemorrhage; namely, arterial, 
capillary, and venous. Arterial hemorrhage is the most 
dangerous and difficult to control. 

Control of Hemorrhage. — Hemorrhage may be controlled 
by pressure, position, heat or cold, torsion, or ligation or 
tying of the blood vessel. The only methods which can 

' See foot note page 405. 



412 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

usually be employed are compression and position. Com- 
pression is more important. It should be applied by the 
fingers, compresses, tourniquets, or constricting bands, 
such as a handkerchief, belt strap, suspenders or strips of 
cloth. 

In case of arterial hemorrhage, the blood gushes forth 
in a bright red stream. The pressure must be applied 
between the wound and the heart. In case of capillary 
hemorrhage, the blood oozes away slowly, and is of a brick 
red color. The bleeding is easily controlled by directly 
applying a clean compress of gauze to the injury. In 
venous hemmorrhage, the blood is a dark red color, and 
discharges in a steady stream. The compression should 
be made on the side of the wound away from the heart. 
Usually the bleeding can be controlled by directly applying 
a large compress of sterile gauze over the bleeding part. 

Elevation of the bleeding parts always aids in controlling 
the flow of blood. As soon as the bleeding has been 
stopped, the patient should be treated for shock. 

Shock. — Shock is a sudden depression of the vital 
powers, arising from an injury, or a profound emotion, 
acting upon the nerve centers, producing exhaustion. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of shock are: subnormal 
temperature; and irregular, weak and rapid pulse; a cold, 
clammy, pale, and profusely perspiring skin; and irregular 
breathing. The person affected usually remains conscious, 
and will usually answer when spoken to, but is stupid 
and indifferent, lying with partly closed lids. Always be 
sure that there is no concealed hemorrhage. 

Treatment. — Lower the patient's head, wrap him in hot 
blankets, and keep him quite warm. Administer an ordin- 
ary stimulant, such as hot black cofTee. It should be as 
hot as the patient can sip it. Give half-teaspoonful doses 
of aromatic spirits of ammonia every twenty or thirty 
minutes. Small doses of whisky or brandy may be given 
if there is no hemorrhage. One or two teaspoonfuls every 
fifteen or twenty minutes will aid the patient until the 



Fiijs'i' AID 'I'o Tin: i\.iriM:i) 413 

doctor arri\"es. Inhalation of ()xy<!;(Mi is also an aid. Arti- 
ficial respiration may be necessary in some cases. Hot 
applications over the lu^art and s])ine should be used. A 
doctor should 1)(^ summoncMl in all possible haste when the 
condition of tlu^ victim is discovered. 

Contusions or Bruises. A contusion or bruise is an 
injury causcul l)y the application of blunt force, the skin 
being unbrokcMi. Blood collects in tlu^ tissues undcM- the 
skin coverinj>; the bruised area. In many deep contusions 
the skin is not damaged, but over bone the skin is apt to 
be injured. If a large blood vessel is ruptured, much blood 
gathers in the tissues under the skin, causing great swelling 
and discoloration. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of contusions or bruises are: 
swelling. t(Mid(M'ness, numbness, followed by aching pain. 
Discoloration usually occurs quickly, especially in surface 
contusions. It ma}' also occur in deeper ones. 

Treatment. — Elevate the injured part, bandaging it 
tightly to arrest the bleeding and control the swelling. 
Apply an ice bag, or towels which have been wrung out in 
ice water. In case of the aged or weak, make hot applica- 
tions instead of cold. 

Wounds. — A wound is a break or division of the tis- 
sues, usually produced by sudden force. Wounds are classi- 
fied as follows: Incised, made by some sharp instrument 
or object; contused, caused by a blunt, flat or rough 
object; lacerated, caused by a tearing force, such as by the 
teeth or claws of animals; and punctured, caused by some 
pointed object. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are pain, bleeding, and gap- 
ing or retracted edges of the skin and tissues. 

Treatment. — First, thoroughly wash out and clean the 
wound at once. Then arrest the bleeding b}' one of the 
methods previously described, and apply some disinfectant. 
Then cover the wound with a piece of sterilized gauze, or 
with clean linen which has been boiled. The gauze should 
be firmly lu^ld in ])lace by a bandage. The wound must 



414 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

be covered to keep it clean and free from subsequent 
infection. 

Fractures. — A fracture is a break in a bone caused by 
direct or indirect violence. Fractures constitute an impor- 
tant class of injuries, not only because they render the vic- 
tim a cripple for the time being, but because the further 
usefulness of the limb depends upon correct diagnosis of 
the fracture, and upon its immediate and future treatment. 
Ignorance and carelessness in handling a fracture at the 
start frequently render the victim an invalid or cripple 
for life. 

The main classes of fractures are: complete, incomplete, 
simple, and compound. In case of an incomplete frac- 
ture, the bone is not entirely broken. In case of a com- 
plete fracture, the bone is completely broken in two. In 
case of a simple fracture, the bone does not protrude 
through the skin; that is, the skin around the fracture is 
not injured. In case of a compound fracture, either one 
or both of the broken ends protrude through the skin, or 
else the force which causes the fracture cuts or tears the 
flesh to the bone. A compound fracture is nearly always 
accompanied by loss of blood, and a nervous shock of 
varying severity. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of fracture are: pain^ 
swelling, discoloration, abnormal motion, loss of power, 
and the grating of the parts of the bone upon each other. 

Treatment. — In examining the fracture, great gentle- 
ness should be exercised in handling the injured parts. 
The limb should be handled as little as possible. If the 
nature of the injury is in doubt, it should be treated as a 
fracture until the physician arrives, never allow a person 

SUFFERING FROM A FRACTURE TO BE MOVED, if pOSSible, Until 

the limb is properly supported by splints. To treat a frac- 
ture, draw the limb to the natural position, securely binding 
it by means of splints and bandages. The limb should be 
supported in any easy and natural position. 

Dislocations. — A dislocation is a complete separation 



FIRST AID TO TlIK IX.HIM:!) 415 

or (lisplacomont of \\w nuMnhrrs of a joint, usually caus(Ml 
by direct violrnco, hut may Ix^ proclucod by indirect violence 
or sudden muscular contraction. Dislocations are always 
painful, because they are usually accomj^anied by wrenching 
and tearing of the ligaments about the joint. They are 
sometimes complicated by a rupture of the muscles, and 
by injuries to surrounding vessels and nerves. 

Dislocations are classed as simple, compound, and com- 
pHcated. In case of a simple dislocation, the articular 
ends are separated without injury to the surrounding tissues. 
Ill case of a compound dislocation, the ligaments around 
the joint are torn. In case of a complicated dislocation, 
the surrounding muscles, vessels, and nerves are injured. 

Sy?npto7?is. — The symptoms of dislocation are: pain, 
sw^elling, discoloration, and rigidity. The natural position 
the Hmb is changed, and the length is increased or decreased. 

Treatment. — Restore the bone to the normal position 
and hold it in place. To properly reduce the dislocation, 
some surgical skill and knowledge of the anatomy of the 
joint are required. The bone should be held in position 
until the arrival of a physician. No attempt should be 
made to reduce any dislocations, except those of the jaw 
or fingers, until the doctor arrives. 

Sprains. — A sprain is the wrenching or twisting of a 
joint, which tears and stretches the surrounding ligaments, 
and sometimes the soft parts. Sprains are important 
injuries, and should receive immediate treatment. Per- 
manent disability sometimes follows failure to give the 
injury proper treatment. Sprains are often more serious 
than fractures. 

Symptot?is. — The s^-mptoms are: severe pain, swelling, 
discoloration, and often partial or complete loss of power of 
the part affected. 

Treatment. — Allow the patient to rest. Elevate the 
injured part, fastening it in the proper place by splints 
and a roller bandage, or with adhesive plaster. ]\Iake hot 
applications with a towel which has been wrung out in 



416 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

hot water. Never allow the patient to rest any of his 
weight on the injured part, nor attempt to use it in any way. 
A serious sprain will remain weak for a long time; con- 
sequently, the injured parts should be favored until the 
sprain has entirely healed. 

Strains. — A strain is the wrenching or tearing of a 
muscle or tendon, usually caused by violent exertion, such 
as lifting heavy objects, or by sudden, unexpected 
movements. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of strain are : sudden sharp 
pain, and sudden weakness of the part affected. Later, 
the pain becomes dull, and the weakness more marked. 
Sometimes the patient cannot use the injured part at all. 

Treatment. — Allow the patient to rest. Tightly band- 
age the injured part. It is sometimes necessary to prevent 
movement of the injured part by the use of splints. Strap- 
ping the muscles supports them, and relieves the pain. 

Hernia or Rupture. — Hernia or rupture is the tearing 
apart, in a weak place, of the abdominal muscles containing 
the intestines, forcing the intestines through the abdominal 
wall. There are two naturally weak places in the abdom- 
inal wall, one on each side, just above the groin. Hernia is 
usually caused by lifting heavy objects, or by sudden 
violent strains. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms of hernia or rupture are: 
pain and sudden weakness, as in strains. A large or small 
lump, caused by the intestines being partly forced through 
the abdominal wall, may be observed when the patient 
coughs or strains. When he stops coughing or straining 
the muscles return to their normal position. A rupture 
which has just been started can only be discovered by a 
physician. 

Treatment. — If a rupture is not cared for, it soon 
becomes larger. The rupture can be prevented from increas- 
ing in size by wearing a truss. It can only be permanently 
cured by an operation, which is not at all serious. This 
will make the person as strong as ever. No man should 



i"ii:si- AID TO Tin: iN.n i;i:i) 1 17 

bo all()\V(Ml to do lioa\y lifting until aflci- lie has hccii cui-cd 
by an ()j)eratioii. ()th(M\vis(\ tin* rui)Hii-(' will bccoinr nnich 
worse. It may l)e('()mo so s(M-ious that ilic inic-tinc- will 
bo pushod so far thr()u«;h tlio abdominal wall that ihcy 
cannot roturn to tluar normal position. Anxonc >utT(M-iiiL!; 
from hernia or rupture^ should undor<i;o an ojxTation. 

Burns and Scalds.— Ikirns are causcMJ by tho o\i)(»-uiv 
of the body to intense heat, such as caused b\- (in\ molten 
metal, certain chemicals, electricity, or (^\j)lo-ions ot' <ias or 
powder; whereas, scalds are produced 1)\ moi-t boat such 
as the heat from boilin^i; water or steam. 

Burns are divided into three classes, [iccoi'din^ to depth. 
A first degree burn is simply a scorching and HMldcMiin^r ,,f 
the outer layer of the skin. A second degree burn dostro\s 
the entire thickness of the skin. A third degree burn 
destroys, not only the entire thickness of tlu^ skin, but also 
the tissue beneath, sometimes entirely to tho bono. 

Sympto77is. — In case of a first degree burn, tho synij)- 
toms are severe burning pain, reddening of tlu^ skin, and 
the formation of blisters. In case of a second degree burn 
the symptoms are excruciating pain and destruction of tho 
skin. In case of a third degree burn the victim sufTors 
intense pain, the entire skin and tho tissue beneath boin^ 
destroyed. In case of severe burns, tho ])ati(Mit suffers 
from shock. 

Treatment. — Remove tho clothing, if it covers the 
burned part. Exclude tho air as (juickly as possible from 
the burned surface with some clean, soothing covering. 
such as picric acid gauze. This is simply plain gauze 
saturated in a solution of picric acid (onc^-half teaspoonful 
of picric acid to one pint of water.) Plac(^ a la>-er of 
absorbent cotton over the gauze. Tlion apply a l)andage 
to hold it in place. 

''Unguentino" is oxcollont for burn-. This is a soothing 
and antiseptic salvo containo(l in metal tubes which may 
be bought at any drug store. \'asolin(\ sweet oil. olixc oil. 
and balsam are all good dressings. BicarlK)nate of so(hi 



418 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AXD DEVICES 

(cooking soda — half a cupful or more in a basin of luke- 
warm water) makes a good solution in which to soak the 
burned part for half an hour, or until the pain is relieved. 
This treatment should be supplemented with an application 
of sweet oil and careful bandaging. In case of bad burns, 
remove all clothing and place the patient in bed. Cover all 
burned parts with cloths soaked in bicarbonate solution. 
Send for the nearest doctor at once. Also immediately 
treat the patient for shock. 

The blisters w^hich later appear should be opened by the 
doctor, otherwise blood poisoning may result from infection. 

Poisoning. — It is often difficult to ascertain the cause 
and nature of sudden poisoning, and to find out what the 
victim has swallowed. He may be able to impart this 
information, otherwise, it is necessary to quickly look 
around for bottles, packets, papers, and other containers. 

Poisons are divided into two main classes; namely, 
irritants and narcotics. 

Irritants are those which are so strong that they burn, 
partially or wholly corroding and destroying the tissues in 
the mouth, gullet, stomach, and other parts with which 
they come in contact. The most common of this class are 
sulphuric acid, strong alkalies (ammonia, potash, soda), 
nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, spirits of salts, cantharides, 
oxalic acid, and phosphorus. 

Narcotics are those poisons which directly affect the 
nervous system, causing stupor. The most common of 
these are laudanum, morphine, strychnine, prussic acid, 
chloral, cyanide, and belladonna. 

Symptoms of Irritant Poisoning. — The symptoms of 
irritant poisoning are intense pain in the region of the chest 
and stomach, whitened lips and mouth which are normally 
red, burning or staining of the skin or clothing, and short, 
quickened breathing. 

Treatment. — Make the victim drink castor or sweet oil, 
whites of raw eggs, milk, flour and water, soap suds, or mag- 
nesia and water. The patient should be given nothing to 



1-iiis'i' AID 'I'o Tin: ix,him:i) 419 

induce^ N'oniit iiiiz, as t his will iiicrca-c 1 lie irritat ion and daniaLic 
already done-. The (^xcc^pt ion to lhi> imiIc i- whcir the |)aticnl 
is known to ha\(' swalh)\v(Ml |)hos|)hoi-us. In thi- cax'. make 
tho pati(Mit driid< two tcvispoontuls of iniistai-(L nnxed with a 
large J2;hiss of water, or some othiM- -afe and handy >nl)- 
stance to i)r()(Iu('(^ \-oniitin^-. 

Symptoms of }\iirc()lic Poisoni/u/. The symptoms of 
narcotic i)()is()nin<;- are ch-owsiiu^ss and hmpiKv-s. and a eoI(L 
damp skin. In cas(^ of huuhmum poisoninu-. the j)iipil 
of the eye becomes very smaH, while in ease of ])oisonin;i- 
by belladonna, the eye is nearly all pupil. 

Treatment, — Give mustard and wat(M- in lar<i:(^ (lrink< 
to provoke vomiting;. A tahlespoonful of eonnnon salt in 
a glass of warm water will do. If thes(^ methods fail to 
produce vomiting make the ])atient \()mit 1)\- thru-tin<; a 
finger down his throat, or tickling his throat with a f(^ather. 
]\lake him drink plenty of strong eoHee aftcM* \()mitinn:. 
Keep him awake at all costs by making him walk and shout- 
ing at him. Never let him go to sleep, as h(> will n(^\-er 
awake. If he cannot be aroused, constantly gi\'e artificial 
respiration. ]\Iake him inhale smelling salts or ammonia. 

The two main things to remember are to thoroughly 
empty the patient's stomach and to k(M'p him awake 
(For table of poisons, symptoms, and antidotcvs see Ap- 
pendix.) 

Fainting. — Fainting occurs when a pc^-son siid<s in an 
exhausted and insensible condition, I'emaining {\\\\(^{ without 
any contortion of the body. 

Treatment. — Place the ]:iatient on his back. loo>eniiiii; 
all tight clothing. (d\'e him ])l(Mity of fi-(v<h aii'. l)a>h 
cold water on his face and neck. Allow iIk^ \ictini to 
smell ammonia or smelling salts. (;i\-e the patient a little 
w^ater to drink when Ik^ Ixh'ouh^s consciou-. 

Epileptic Fits. — Fj)ileptic (its occui- wiier(^ tlic^ \ictim 
falls suddenly without any api)ar(Mit cau-c. thi'ows hi- ai'in- 
and legs about violently, twists his head, and fioth^ at the 
mouth. 



420 PRACTICAL SAFETY METHODS AND DEVICES 

Treatment. — Place the patient on his back on something 
soft, as a mattress or a couch. Loosen all tight clothing. 
Hold the patient to prevent him from injuring himself 
during the violent convulsions. Place a small rolled band- 
age between the teeth to prevent the victim from biting 
his tongue. 

Apoplectic Fits. — Apoplectic fits occur where the victim 
falls suddenly in an unconscious condition. The face is 
usually red and flushed. The patient breathes heavily in 
a snorting or pufhng manner. The pupils of the eyes are 
unequal in size, and the limbs on one side of the body are 
usually paralyzed. 

Treatment. — Loosen all tight clothing. Raise the head 
and shoulders, placing a rolled coat under the head. Dash 
cold water on the head, giving the patient plenty of fresh 
air. 

Sunstroke. — When a person suffers from sunstroke, he 
falls suddenly with a flushed face. There may be convul- 
sions. The head and neck are very hot to the touch. 

Treatment. — Carry the victim at once to the shade. 
Loosen all tight clothing. Raise the head and shoulders, 
dashing cold water on the head and chest. Use ice if it 
can be obtained. Fan the patient, if he can get but little 
air. 



^ 



APPENDIX 

AsniYxiATiox oit Sr ii-()(A'i'iON ^ 

Asi)hyxiation arisc^s wIkmi {\]v hody is dcpiixcd of air or oxviivn. 
It is caused hy \\\v ])vvsvnv{' of ,uas(>s which do not su|)|)oi-l Hfc 
when inhalcMl, by certain (h-u<2;s, l)y electric shock, hy hea\\- hlows 
on certain i)ai-ts of the l)0(ly, (such as a l)l()\v on th(> solar-plexus, 
jaw, n(M-k or head), and by aj^parent di-owning. 

Asi)hyxiation l)y <iases may be caus(Ml by illuminating; ^as. car- 
bon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitro<;(Mi, ammonia funics, j!;asolene 
funu^s, (rases from blast furnacc^s and household stoves, gases in 
mines, <2:ases from <2;as producers, fumes from molten brass, elements 
freed from their comi:)ounds, such as chlorin(\ bromine^ and similar 
gases, sulphur dioxide, formaldehyde, various non-r(^sj)irable fumes 
and gases in different chemical processes, exclusion of fresh air as 
in a bank vault, confined air as in the compartments of ships, sewer 
gas, smoke, chloroform and ether in excess, and by other gases and 
fumes. 

Asphyxiation may also l)e caused ])y something that blocks the 
windpip(\ preventing air from cnitc^'ing tlu^ lungs. 

Resuscitation by Artificial Respiratiox ^ 

Susp(^nd(Ml animation, due to the abov(^ enumei-ated causes, 
should at once receive treatment by artificial respiration. There 
should b(» no delay. Every second counts when a person is in this 
condition. Loss of a few^ moments may mean tln^ loss of a life. 
Quickly get the patient in fr(>sh air; do not stoj) to loosen his 
clothing, but apply artihcial respiration at once. Piai)idly feel in 
his mouth and throat, removing an>- tobacco, false teeth, uum. and 
other foreign substances. L(jse no time in sending someone t(j 
sunnnon a ))hysician. 

^ The sul)j('ct inattor under these headings i.s an extract from a hook on 
" Electrieal Injuries" by Dr. C. A. Lauffer, Modiral Diroetor, \\ C^^tinghouse 
Elcctrie and Mfg. Co., puhlishofl hy John ^\'iley i\: Sons. Xew 'S'ork. 



422 



APPENDIX 



Artificial respiration must be perseveringly continued if the life 
of the victim is to be saved. Even if the victim has apparently 
been dead for some time, efforts to restore life should be unceas- 
ingly applied for a long while. Although no radial wrist pulse may 
be felt, the heart may still be feebly beating. 

There are several methods of giving artificial respiration, but 
only one method, the best one, is described here, for the reason that 
it is better to learn one method thoroughly than to have an in- 
adequate knowledge of several different methods which would 
result in confusion and failure in an emergency. 

The Shaefer or Prone Pressure Method of artificial respiration 
will now be described. 

The three essentials of this method to be remembered and prac- 
ticed, in anticipation of an emergency, are as follows: 

1. Lay the victim on his 
stomach, turning face to 
one side, so that the 
mouth and nose are free 
for breathing. Let an as- 
sistant draw forward the 
victim's tongue. 

2. Straddle the patient's 
hips, facing his head. Rest 
the palms of your hands 
on his loins (the muscles 
of the small of the back), 

with your fingers spread over his lowest ribs. 

3. Gradually throw the weight of your body and shoulders for- 
ward so as to bring your weight heavily on the lower ribs of the 
patient by means of your hands. (Fig. 127.) The operator's 
downward pressure should last about three seconds. The pressure 
should be fight at first, and gradually increased without violence up to 
the end of the three seconds. The pressure and rate should be uni- 
form in each repetition. Sudden thrusts and irregularities do not con- 
form to natural respiration. The operator's arms should be kept rigid 
and not bent at the elbows. The weight should all come from the 
shoulders, pressure on the ribs being made with the heel of the hand. 
After the duration of three seconds, immediately spring back- 
ward to relieve the pressure, returning to tlie position shown in 
Fig. 126. 




Fig. 126 
Shaefer method of artificial respiration, 
inspiration. 



APPl.NDIX 



423 



nil assist ;int 

If t ll(> ()|)C|-- 

l)y his own 

III nssislaiit 
:. chest . and 




Rri)oat this op(»ration r(\<:nlaily fioin twehc to fifteen times per 
minute, swin^;in^ l)a{'k\vai(l and forward, completing; a sin^h' res- 
piration in four or five seconds. Thei-e is danirer of (^xceedini: a 
maximum of sixteen resjMrations pw nnnul(\ tlieicfoic 
should regulate the rate of respiration with his watch. 
ator is alone, he can fairly clos(>ly judtie the time 
regular breathing. 

As soon as artificial nvspiration has Ixmmi started, 
should loosen any ti«i;ht clothinjj; about tlu^ |)atient's nee 
waist. Artificial respiration should he contimuMi without intei- 
ruption until natural breathing is restored. If necessary, the oper- 
ation should be continued 

for TWO HOURS OR LONGER, 

or until a physician arrives 
to take charge. If natural 
breathing stops, after hav- 
ing been restored, again 
continue artificial respira- 
tion. 

Do not put any liquid 
in the patient's mouth 
until he is fully conscious. 
Give him plenty of fresh 
air, but keep him warm, 
the accident is discovered. 

This method is applicable in cases of asphyxiation by electric 
shock, drowning, gas poisoning, and by any other cause. The four 
points to be especially remembered in connection \vith this method 
are: 

1. Position of i)atient. 

2. Posture of operator. 

3. Mode of operation. 

4. Rate per minute, and duration of each respiration. 

A cloth, saturated with aromatic spirits of ammonia, wlien held 
near the nose, is more useful than oxygen. 

Do not allow the patient to sit vip or stand until he has 
fully recovered, as a second collapse may result in heart 
failure, all subsequent efforts at artificial resj)iration being un- 
availing. The patient should be watched for some time after 
recovering. 



Shaefer inctliod of artificijil rcsi)irati()n, — 
expiration. 

Send for the nearest tloctor as soon as 



424 APPENDIX 

In all cases of insufficient respiration — that is, when the patient 
breathes regularly, but very slowly, artificial respiration should not 
be given. If possible, nature should unaided be allowed to restore 
the natural rate of breathing. 

It is often advantageous to allow the patient to breathe pure 
oxygen. This may be appHed from a cylinder containing this gas 
under pressure, a breathing bag, connecting tubes, face mask, and 
inspiratory and expiratory valves being used. The oxygen may also 
be supphed by an oxygen generator. If this is done, no reducing 
valve will be necessary. In case the patient cannot breathe, when 
an oxygen generator is being used, artificial respiration should be 
administered in order to cause the oxygen to enter and expire from 
the lungs at regular intervals. This, of course, is not necessary 
where pulmotors are used. 

In cases of poisoning by carbon monoxide, in mines or elsewhere, 
the use of oxygen is important. This gives the blood an excess of 
oxygen which counteracts the injurious effects of this gas. 

While pulmotors are a valuable aid in artificial respiration, these 
or other appliances can never supersede manual methods of resus- 
citation. No rehance can be placed upon any apparatus that can- 
not be carried on the person, nor upon any apparatus that is 
unready for instant use. It therefore behooves superintendents and 
foremen to learn this manual method of giving artificial respiration. 
They should so train and educate the men under them in this 
method that they will be able to render invaluable aid in an emer- 
gency. 

A working knowledge of one good method of giving artificial 
respiration is essential in every walk of life. One's failure to learn 
a method of giving artificial respiration may be responsible for the 
needless loss of a life. Each man should be taught to think out 
beforehand what to do and how to do it, so that he can act quickly 
in an emergency, doing the proper thing at the right time. This is 
especially true in cases of possible electrical injuries. The locations 
of switches, circuit-breakers, and methods of breaking the circuit 
should be determined in the minds of each workman before an 
accident of this nature can occur. A httle forethought in this 
connection will result in fewer serious injuries and fatahties. 



Ai'n;.\i)i.\ 425 



BuKAKiNc I'm: ("iHcrrr* 

Wh(M'(' a victim is unahlr to release his ii;i-as|) on a circaiit coii- 
(liictor, tlie ^reat(\st care, and at the same time all j)()ssil»le sjx'ed. 
must be ex(M'cise(I to save the victim and also j)revent injury lo the 
rescuer. 

If tluM'e is a circuit-breaker near at hand, the current should be 
shut otT at once; if none, remove the victim by means of any diy 
non-conductor, such as a di'y stick of wood, oi* lon^ woodcMi handle 
of a tool, such as a shov(*l or ])ick. 'l'ak(^ »i;i"eat cai"e not to let any 
metal part come near the conductor or victim. Juther push or 
roll the body aside, or shove away tluM'onductoi-. The rescuei- can 
stand on a real dry woodeji or concrete floor and i)ull the victim 
away by his clot hinjj; without (lan<2;er to himself, but the floor nuist 
be DRV. He can also safely «irasp the l)od\' of tlu^ victim if his 
hands are protected by sevei'al thicknesses of dry cloth, such as a 
coat or overcoat. Where j)ossible, only one liand should be used. 

Often, a line may be short-circuited by thi'owin*:; an ii'on chain, 
crowbar, i)iece of pipe, or some other metal object across the two 
conductors of the circuit. This will cause the circuit-l)reaker to 
open the circuit, or will blow the fuses protectinji; the ekn'trical 
system. (Ireat care should be taken to ol)tain propcM- insulation 
from the metal parts when executinjj; this work. The hands should 
leave the metal object before it touches the ^vires. In case the 
victim is in contact with a trolley ^^^re, for example, a mental j)ii)c 
or a length of wire should be placed firmly in contact with the 
track rail, and then thrown across the trolley wire, connectin«i; it to 
the rail. Great caution should b(^ observcnl in performing this 
operation. The pijx^ or wire should leave the hands before it 
touches any part of the conductor of the circuit. Even then, the 
hands should be insulated with rubber gloves, or thick folds of 
cloth. Opening the circuit b\' means of a nearby circuit-breaker 
or switch is the surest way of safely releasing the victim. Tliere 
should l)e no reckless haste in attempting to release him, but the 
rescue work should be done quickh' and intelligently. 



' The .sul)j<'rt niatlor uiulcr this licadin^ is an extract fnmi a hook on " VAcc- 
triral Injuries " hy Dr. C. A. LaufTor, Medical Dirertor, Wcslinghouse Electric 
and Mfg. Co., puhlished l)y .John Wiley & Sons, New York. 



426 



APPENDIX 



TABLE OF POISONS, SYMPTOMS, AND ANTIDOTES 



Poison 


Symptoms 


Emetic 


Antidotes 


Strong mineral 




None 


Magnesia, soap and 


acids 






water, chalk and 
water 


Caustic alkalis 




(( 


Lemon juice or vinegar 


(ammonia, pot- 


Immediate burning 






ash, soda, etc.) 


pain in mouth, 






Oxalic acid 


throat, stomach 


(I 


Magnesia, chalk and 




and abdomen. 




water 


Corrosive subli- 


A'omiting, purg- 


u 


Raw eggs beaten up, 


mate 


ing, shock, suffo- 




flour and water. 




cation, and ex- 




milk 


Chloride of ziuc 


haustion 


ii 


Bicarbonate of soda 
followed by raw 
eggs 


Chloride of anti- 




l( 


Tea, coffee, tannic 


mony 






acid and water 


Arsenic 




Zinc sulphate 


Tincture of steel, and 






and water 


bicarbonate of soda 




SjTnptoms m_ay not 




and water, raw eggs 




appear at once; 




and milk, oil and 




they vary consid- 




lime water 


Tin 


erably. 


11 


Carbonate of am- 




After a time, pain 




monia and water 


Lead 


and dryness of 


" 


Epsom salts and 




throat, sickness, 




water 


Copper 


vomiting, loss of 


(.' 


Raw eggs and milk 


Phosphorus 


voice, cold sweat. 


u 


Magnesia or chalk 




shock and exhaus- 




mixed in milk or 




tion 




gruel 


Iodine 




il 


Starch and water 
gruel 


Cantharides 




11 


Linseed tea gruel 


Irritant gases 


Headache and drow- 


None 


Fresh air, artificial 




siness 




respiration 


Opium (lauda- 


Giddiness, headache, 


Mustard and 


Keep patient awake, 


num, morphine) 


dimness of vision, 
contracted eye pu- 
pils, drowsiness 
and stupor 


water 


hot coffee 


Belladonna and 


Enlarged pupils, 


Zinc sulphate 


Charcoal powder and 


henbane 


thirst, dehrium 




water, hot coffee 


Strychnine 


Violent convulsions, 


S t m a c h 


Plenty of olive oil to 




lock-jaw, but 


pump re- 


drink 




mind quite clear 


quired 




Cyanide or prussic 


Usually quick deatli 


Zinc suljihatc 


Brandy and water; 


acid 


by shock 




dash cold water on 
face, head and chest 



AIMM.XDIX 



427 



C'arl)()lic acid 



AcnH 



Silver nitrati 



Intciis' huniiii^: |)ain 
from mouth to 
stomach, ^i(l(h- 
ncss, breath smells 
of carbolic aciil 

Numbness, tin^liii^, 
burnirifz; and tight- 
ness felt in throat 

Immediate vomiting 



Zinc sulpiiate 
or mustard 
and water 



nilphati 



Majiiiesia mixed with 
(tli\(" oil. raw efins 
and mdk 



l)rand>- and water, 
rub limbs and spine 
with hot towels. 

( 'oiiitiioii salt atul 
water or scu-water 



IXDKX 



Accidents, Waste caused by, 1 
Porcontago Preventable, 2 
Accident Prevention Scorc^Board, 10 
Accident Relief Plans, 392 
Asphyxiation, 421 
Awards, Systems of, 8 

Hearin<is for Sliaftin^, l.')4 
Belt Idler and Shifter, 1():3 
Belt in}!, !.")() 

Rules, 102 
Belt Shift(M-s, 1(53 

("one Pull{>y, 1()7 
lileachers, S9 
Boiler Houses, 46 
Boilers, 60 

Analyses of Feed \\'at(>r, 7S 

Baffle Plates, 73 

Blowinji Down, 74 

Blow-off Connections, 74 

Carbonates in Feed Water, 81 

Cast Iron in, 61 

Chlorides in Feed Water, 83 

Circulation of Water, 84 

Cleaning, 85 

Corrosion, 77 

Damper Regulators, 86 

Factor of Safety, 61 

Feed Pumi)s, 70 

Feed Water Connections, 70 

FVed Water Heaters, 71 

Foaming, 84 

F^isible Plugs, 66 

Clrooving, 7S 

Guarding Stokers, and Coal and 
Ash Handling Machinery. SJi 

Handholes, t)3 

High and Low Water Alarms. »»6 

Idle. S.-) 

Impurities in Feed Water, 76 



Boilers, Joints. 61 

Manholes. ()2 

Mud in F(>ed Water, Si 

Numbering, 87 

Patches, 62 

Pitting, 78 

Platforms, Stairways, Lighting, 86 

Precautions l)ef<)re lOntering, 88 

Rivet Holes. ()2 

Rotary, 89 

Rules, 90 

Safety Valves, 67 

Scale Incrustation, SO 

Setting Tubes, 62 

Settings and Supports, iV.i 

Staying, 62 

Steam (lauges, 67 

Steam Mains and Connections. 72 

Stop and Automatic Cut-off 
\'aIvos, 69 

Strength, 60 

Sulphates in Feed \\ater, 82 

Superheaters, 74 

Surface Blow-off, 75 

Tests and Inspections, 87 

Water Colunms, 64 

Water (lauge Cuards, 65 
Breakers. Automatic Circuit. 101, U4 

Automatic \'acuum, 100 
Bridges, 295 
Bruises, 41:^ 
Buildings, Construction of, 39 

Foundations, 39 
Buildings and Fire Hazard, 38 
Buffers, 283 
Bulletin Boanls. 6 
Burns. 417 

Cables. Wire. 127 
Cable Fastenings, 129 



430 



INDEX 



Cages, Mine, 320 

Carelessness, 34 

Cars, Electric Subway, 294 

Electric Surface, 293 
Cattle Guards, 284 
Chains, 247 

Chains and Sprockets, Guarding, 163 
Change Houses, Mine, 320 
Checking Men in and out of Mine, 315 
Chip Guard for Lathe, 169 
Chuck Guards for Lathes, 170 
Clearance for Railroad Tracks, 283 
Clothing, 30 
Clutches, Friction, 154 
Compressors, Air, 102 
Concentration, 34 
Conductors, Trolley Car, 296 
Congested Workplaces, 31 
Construction Operations, Rules for, 268 
Construction Work, 259 
Contusions, 413 
Couplings, 152 
Crossings, Grade, 280 

Derails, 283 

Dies, 362 

Digesters, 89 

DiscipUne, 34 

Dislocations, 414 

Doors, 42 

Drawings, Checked for Safety, 26 

Drill Presses, 173 

Drinking Fountains, 376 

Drinking Water, 378 

Dumb Waiters, 126 

Dust Explosions, 53 

Education, Children and Students, 2, 35 
Employees, 4, 20 
PubHc, 36 

Efficiency Tests for Railroad Em- 
ployees, 273 

Electric Railroads, 293 

Electrical Accidents in Mines, 300 

Electrical Apparatus, Fire Hazard of, 
46 

Electrical Injuries, Breaking the Cir- 
cuit, 425 



Electricity, 135 

Arc Lamps, 147 

Circuit Breakers, 144 

Common Accidents, Contact In- 
juries, 137 

Common Accidents, Flashes, 135 

Fuses, 146 

Generators, 140 

Incandescent Lamps, 147 

In Mines, 300 

Motors, 140 

Rules, 148 

Storage and Primary Batteries, 
148 

Switchboards, 142 

Switches, 142 

Transformers, 139 

Wiring, 137 
Elevators, 107 

Automatic Limit Stops, 121 

Automatic Locks, 122 

Beveled Beams and Plates, 109 

Cables, 127 

Cable Fastenings, 129 

Capacity, 130 

Clearances in Shaft, 109 

Counterweights, 123 

Counterweight Runways, 124 

Doors, 113 

Freight Cars, 118 

Gates, 114 

Hand Power, 126 

Hydraulic Machines, 125 

Inspection and Maintenance, 132 

Location of Machines, 125 

Operation, 130 

Passenger Cars, 116 

Platforms under Head Sheaves, 111 

Rules, 132 

Safety Devices, 120 

Shafts, 107 

Sheaves and Drums, 124 

Sidewalk, 126 

Signals, 123 

Speed, 130 

Tests, 131 

Warning Chains, 116 

Warning Signs, 131 



iM)i;.\ 



431 



Emory Whools, 17'.> 

Dust Uomov'il, 170 

Flannos. 170 

Hoot Is and (1 nan Is, ISo 

MountiiiK, 170 

Observations. 1S7 

Safety Stops. 1S2 

SpotMl, 1.S2 

Table of Safe Speeds, 184 
Engine Houses, 46 
iMigine Rooms, 105 
Engines, 04 

Fly \\' heels, 0() 

(lovernors and Safety Stops, 00 

( Juarding. 04 

Independent Autoniatie Speed- 
Einiit Stops, 00 

Lubrication, 102 

Rules, 10") 

Steam Separators, 101 
Excavations, 250 
Exits, 44 

Expectoration, 370 
Exi)losions 

Boilers, 70 

Dust, 53 

C.as, 308 

Steam Pipes, 76 
Explosives, 326 

Adaptation, 341 

Charging Holes with Black 
Powder, 335 

Charging Holes with Dynamite, 
33() 

Detonators, 332 

Dynamite, 328 

Exploders, 332 

Firing the Charge, 337 

Fuses, 332 

Ciunpowder, 327 

Harmful Fumes, 330 

Hints on Blasting, 342 

Making up Cartridges, 333 

Misfires, 340 

Rules, 354 

Storage, 343 

Thawing Dynamite, 340 

Transportation, 348 



10x|)losive and liiflainrnaltle Li(|uids, 

50 
i:xtrar(ors, SO 
F^ye Injuries, 407 

Flashed I^yes, 408 
Eye Protection. 357 

Fainting, 410 

Fatigue, 33 

F'ire Alarms, 48 

F'iroarms, 307 

F'ire Auxiliary Appaiatus, 48 

Fire Brigades, 57 

for Mines, 308 
Fire Drills, 54, 55 
Fire ICscapes, 43 
Fire-Fighting l](iuipment for Mines, 

307 
F'ire Hose, 48 
Fire Precautions, 48 

for Mines, 307 
Fire Walls, 30 
Fireworks, 50 
Fires in Mines, 303 
First Aid E(iuij)ment, lOO 
First Aid, (ieneral Instructions for, 401 
First Aid Organization, 403 
First Aid and Rescue Orgain/ation for 

Mines, 320 
First Aid to the Injured, 103 
Fits, Apoplectic, 420 

F:pileptic, 410 
Flagmen, 2S1 
Floors, 40, 2()4 
Fly Wheels, 00 
Food Supply, 378 
P\jotways, 101e\ated, 45 
Footways and Runways, 203 
F'oremen, Duties of, 16 
F'oremen's Rules, 368 
Fractures, 414 
Frogs, Track. 2.S1 

Clarbage Removal, 378 

Ciiis Exi)losions in Mines, 30S 

Cuus Jets, 40 

Clas Prcxiucers, 230 

Gasolene, 50 



432 



INDEX 



Gears, 162 

General Observations, 23 

General Rules, 369 

Generators, 140 

Goggles, 357 

Grinding IMachinery, 179 

Guarding Machinery, 23, 266 

Hammers, 362 

Heating, 381 

Helmets for Welding, 359 

Hemorrhage, 411 

Hernia, 416 

Hoisting, 247 

Hoisting Equipment for Mines, 319 

Hoods for Sand Blasters, 359 

Hospitals, Company, 390 

Hot Boxes, 278 

Houseflies, 379 

Ignorance, 32 

Illness, 33 

Illumination, 380 

Infection, 409 

Inflammable and Explosive Liquids, 50 

Inflammable Material, 48 

Inspection, 35. 

Instruction, 34 

Intoxicants, 32 

Jointers, 194 

Keys, Shaft, 150 

Ladders, 264, 318, 363 

Lamps, Portable Electric Mine, 312 

Safety Mine, 309 
Lathes, 167 
Lathe Dogs, 170 
Lighting, 380 

Loading and Unloading IMaterial, 285 
Locker Rooms, 376 
Locomotives, Safety on, 275 
Locomotive Crane Engineers, Rules 

for, 243 
Locomotive Engineers, Rules for, 278 

Machine Tools, 167 



Medical Examination of Employees, 

384, 400 
Milling Machines, 173 
Mining Accidents, Classification of, 

298 
Mining and Quarrjdng, 297 
Mining Rules, 322 
Miscellaneous, 357 
Mosquitoes, 380 
Motormen, 296 
Motors, 140 

Nurses, Visiting, 391 

Occupational Diseases, 398 
Oil Lamps, 50 

Pension Funds, 393 
Pihng Material, 256, 258 
Piping, 102 
Planers, Machine, 170 
Platforms, Elevated, 45 
Poisoning, 418 

Poisons, Protection against, 399 
Poisons, Table of, — Symptoms, Emet- 
ics, and Antidotes, 426 
Power Control, 163 
Protruding Nails, 265 
Pulleys, 155 
Punching Presses, 173 

Quarrying, 322 

Raihoad Rules, 289 
Railroads, Steam and Electric, 271 
Rails, Electric Third, 295 
Receivers, An-, 101 

Steam, 100 
Rendering Tanks, 89 
Respiration, Artificial, 421 
Respirators, 361 
Roofs, 45, 265 
Ropes, Guarding, 163 
Ropes, Wire, 127 
Rule Books, 6, 20 
Rules 

Belting, 162 

Blast Furnaces, 212 



ixi)i:.\ 



433 



Rules, Boilers, 90 

Coke Overs, 231 

Construction Oporafions, 2()S 

Docks. LT)") 

I^lcctric Crane ( )])('iat()rs. 240 

i:icctricity, 14S 

Kl(>vat()rs, l.TJ 

Miitiincs, 105 

Explosives, 354: 

Foremen, 368 

Foundries and Steel Mills, 2:?2 

(leneral, IW.) 

Lamp Foremen in Mines, 310 

Locomotive Crane OjxMators, 

Locomotive Engineers. 278 

Mines, 322 

Open Hearth, 215 

Railroads, 2S0 

Stove Cleaners. 231 

Yards, 289 
Runways and Footways, 2(53 
Rim ways, Elevated, 45 
Rupture, 416 

Safeguards, Construction of, 23, 26 

Removal of, 23 

Replacement of, 23 
Safety Bulletins, 5 
Safety Committees, Duties of, 16 

Organization of, 4, 15 

Outline of, 15 
Safety, Essential to Efficiency. 2 

As an Investment, 3 
Safety Inspector, Duties of. lO 
Safety Organizations, 17, 18, 19 
Sanitation, 374 
Saws, Band. 194 

Circular, 1.S9 

Swing Cut-ofT. 192 
Scaffolding, 260 
Scalds, 417 
Screens, Portable, 3()0 
Separators, Steam, 101 
Set Screws, 153 
Shaft Sinking, 316 
Shaft -s Mine, 315 
Shafting, 150 
Shapers, Machine, 172 



king llie Circuit, 425 



Shapers, Wood. 19!) 
Shears. Metal. 177 
Shock, 412 

Electric, 409 

Electric, Bn 
Shoes, 31 

"Congress," 222 
Shower Baths, 377 
Sidewalks, 2()3, 366 
Signals, Automatic Block. 27!» 
Signs, Danger an<l Warning, 27 
Sociological Work, 39.") 
Spittiiig, 370 
13 Sprains, 415 

Sprinkler Sj'stems, Automatic, 

Sprockets, 163 

Stacks, 46 

Stairways, 40, 264 

Stamping Presses, 173 

Steam Railroads, 271 

Steel Workers, 267 

Stock Subscription Plans, 394 

Stoping, 318 

Stoves, 50 

Strains, 416 

Suffocation, 421 

Suggestion Blanks, 7 

Suggestion Boxes, 6 

Sunstroke, 420 

Switches, Track, 2s 1 

Tanks, Elevated. 45 

Oil, 287 
Teaming and Trucking, 366 
Thoughtlessness, 34 
Timbering Mines, 318 
Tools, Hand, 3()1 
Traffic, Handling, 364 
Transfer Pits, 284 
Transmission, 150 
Transportation in Mines, 319 
Trestles, 2S4 
Tunneling. 317 

Urinals, 376 

Ventilation. 3S2 
in Mines. 313 



;;(), 131 



434 



INDEX 



Wash Rooms, 376 
Waste Caused by Accidents, 1 
Waste Disposal, 266 
Water Closets, 374 
Waterhammer in Pipes, 75 
Water Supply, 378 
Welfare Work, 384 
Wheelbarrows, 266 
Windows of Trolley Cars, 294 
Woodworking Machinery, 189 



Workmen's Compensation Laws, 1 
Workmen's Safety Committees, 9 

Duties of, 16 
Wounds, 413 
Wrench, Safety, 363 

Yards, 226, 284 
Yard Rules, 289 

Zones, Street Safety, 365 



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